CHAPTER VIII INSTITUTIONAL, INFRASTRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT PROFILE OF THE HILL SUB-SAMPLE

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1 CHAPTER VIII INSTITUTIONAL, INFRASTRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT PROFILE OF THE HILL SUB-SAMPLE VIII.1 Having discussed the institutional strength, status of rural development and rural infrastructure in the three plain sample districts of Assam in Chapter VI and the inter-relationship among them in Chapter VII, the pattern of all those three issues in the sample hill district of Karbi Anglong have been discussed in this chapter. Being under the VIth schedule of the Constitution of India, the 73 rd Amendment of the constitution is not applicable in the district and accordingly, the system of panchayati raj is not instituted. The Sixth Schedule, however, provides for Autonomous District Councils (ADCs) which can effectively perform all the functions of the zilla parishad. However, the sixth schedule does not necessarily require the ADCs to devolve responsibilities and power to sub-district and village levels. The nature and quantum of such devolution therefore hinges on the decision of the ADCs. The Karbi Anglong Autonomous Council (KAAC) has instituted the Village Development Councils (VDCs) in the district as institutions at the grass-roots for the development of the villages. In the present exercise, attempt has been made to document the functioning and effectiveness of two VDCs in Karbi Anglong along with the status of development in two villages and level of infrastructure there. VIII.2 Structure of Rural Institutions for Rural Development The structure of governance in the rural areas of Karbi Anglong is different from that of the plain districts of Assam. The difference lies in the existence of traditional and 196

2 government institutions acting parallely as self-governing bodies at the grass-roots. Despite the parallel functioning of both these governing bodies, there is no clash between them which work together in collaboration with each other (Sarmah 2011). VIII.2.1 Traditional Institutions The inhabitants of the hills of Karbi Anglong known as the Karbi s have a three-tier self-governing traditional institutions. At the top, there is the Lingdokpo (the King) and his Pinpomer (the Parliament or Council of ministers) followed by the Habei s (the Heads of the regions) and the Mei s (Village councils) headed by the Sarthe s (the Gaonburhas). The tribal youths are trained for all types of social activities in Jirekadam or Farle (the Bachelor dormitory) which works under the leadership of the Basapo (Officer of the Habeiship). The Lindokpos lead a life like other tribal people working in their jhum fields and residing in normal houses. The king and the queen receive special attention once in a year when the royal Darbar is held. However, people often use to visit the king to get solutions to their socio-religious and legal problems (Sarmah 2011). The pinpomer is constituted of functionaries to help the king in the hierarchical order of the Bardili (the Prime minister), the Katharbura (the Priest), the Pator (the Assistant) and the Dengja (the Advisor). All administrative functions are performed by the pinpomer, habeis and sarthes in the name of the Lingdokpo. Being the head, the king has to attend to all the socio-religious matters and has to settle all disputes brought before him by his sub-ordinates. Though the king takes decisions on all 197

3 matters consulting with the pinpomer and his sub-ordinates, his decisions are regarded as the final decision. At the bottom of the king, there are the Habeis one each in the 12 Longris (Administrative units) under the ancient karbi kingdom. A Longri covers numbers of villages including the village of the Habei. The Habei of a Longri is assisted by the Habei Richo (Assistant Habei), Brutman (Expert in traditional laws), Mutlar (Organising secretary), Hemai (Assistant to Mutlar), Basapo, Pheranke (Messenger) and the Sarthes. The Habei with the help of his council settles all local disputes within his jurisdiction and sends it for final approval of the Lindokpo. At the village level, there exists the Mei headed by the Sarthe members of which are all the adult male of the village. The Sarthe takes decisions regarding all village affairs within his village in consultation with the members of the Mei. The Mei keeps notice on all village development activities and works as the trial court of the village that settles cases related to ownership of lands, theft, quarrel or adultery, etc. A case not settled at a Mei is referred to the Habei and the Habei, if he fails to solve, refers it to the Lingdokpo. Such traditional institutions of Karbi Anlong are not generally development oriented. These institutions perform more as village courts to settle local disputes and protect traditional customs than performing activities for the development of the traditional societies. Apart from this, such institutions may not be considered democratic as people belonging to all tribal clans are not allowed to participate in the king s court or in meetings of different councils. Women are also not allowed to attend any 198

4 meeting of the councils. However, changes have been made at present to allow women to participate in the council meetings but no seat is still reserved for women in the council or in its programmes. VIII.2.2 New Institutional Structure for Implementation of Development Programmes Under the initiative of the KAAC, a three-tier system of sub-district and village level institutional structure, apparently parallel to the three-tier PRI system of the nonsixth schedule areas, have been founded in the hill district. In this three-tier system with the KAAC at the apex level, there exist block level coordination committees (BLCCs) under the Department of Panchayat and Rural Development. The BLCC consists of a chairman appointed by the KAAC, the BDO as the member secretary and maximum of 40 members though there is no strict limitation on the number of members. The members are generally selected by the Members of Autonomous Council (MAC) areas under the block. As reported by the informed sources, the village development councils (VDCs) work as the grass-roots level institutions under the BLCC. Generally, one VDC is constituted in one MAC area. The VDC is comprised of a chairman selected among the members, a KAAC appointed secretary, two office assistants and 10 members selected by the member of the respective autonomous council area in consultation with the chairman. Despite its apparent similarity with the PRI structure in the non-vith Schedule districts, there are intrinsic differences of this institutional structure with the three-tier 199

5 institutional structure in the non-vith Schedule districts. Such differences exist in various grounds. First, the members of the three-tier institutions in the hill district are not generally elected rather they are nominated by the members of respective autonomous council areas. Secondly, no norm for women member reservation is followed in these institutions unlike the PRIs in the non-vith Schedule districts. Finally, there is lack of provisions to ensure participation of all communities in the institutions. VIII.3 Profile of the Sample VDCs VIII.3.1 Basic information of Population, members and Staff The Duar Amla and Amri VDCs under Amri block of Karbi Anglong cover 3700 and 2800 population respectively which are much less than what a panchayat covers in the plain districts. But the two VDCs cover large numbers of villages as the villages in the hill district are very thinly populated. All members in the two VDCs belong to ST category as the population covered by the two VDCs are mainly tribal people. Table 8.1: Basic Information regarding Sample VDCs Village Development Council No. of Constituent Villages No. of Households Total Population No. of Members Female ST Total Duar Amla Amri At present, the Duar Amla and Amri VDCs have 6 and 8 members respectively selected by the Member of Autonomous Council (MAC) area among which one member in each VDC has been selected as the chairman. Each VDC has one 200

6 secretary, one junior engineer and one office assistant appointed by the state government as permanent staff. VIII.3.2 Revenue of the Sample VDCs The revenue of the sample VDCs is basically constituted of grants from both the central and state governments under various rural development schemes. Although they are empowered to raise certain revenues of their own through local taxation and collecting fees and fines to some extent, the two selected VDCs are not found to raise own revenue. This may be because of the sufficiently large amount of grants devolved by the government to such institutions under various programmes for the development of the hill villages. Table 8.2: Revenues of the Sample VDCs in (in Rs.) Name of the VDC Central Government State Government Duar Amla Amri N.B.: Grant (71.4) (80.0) Grant (28.6) (20.0) Figures in () represent percentage of total revenue, and Figures in {} represent per capita VDC revenue. Total Revenue {2840} {1785} As shown in the table above, grants from the central government constitute most part of the revenue of the sample VDCs which ranges from nearly 70% to 80%. State government grants are also found to contribute a significant portion to these institutions. The per capita VDC revenue has been found much higher than that in the sample panchayats in the plain districts during the reference period of

7 VIII.3.3 Rural Development Activities of the Sample VDCs As the panchayats in the plain districts, the functions of the sample VDCs are found to confine in performing specific activities under MGNREGA, Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC) and IAY schemes. Apart from the activities done by the panchayats in the plain districts, the VDCs in the hill district are found to work for plantation of rubber in the hill areas, creation of water supply systems and construction of village community halls. The table 8.3 represents activities performed by the sample VDCs in the reference year Table 8.3: Activity of the Sample VDCs in VDC Name Duar Amri Activity Village Road Constructed (km) Amla 4 3 Village Road Maintained (km) 8 10 Culverts Constructed on Village Road (Nos.) 10 2 Households Provided with IAY Houses (Nos.) Village School Campus Maintained (Nos.) 5 - Households Provided with Sanitary Toilet (Nos.) PHC Building Maintained (Nos.) 3 - Rubber Plantation (Hectare) 3 1 Water Supply System Created (Nos.) 14 2 Irrigation System Created (Nos.) - 2 Village Community Hall Constructed (Nos.) 6 4 VDC Activity Index

8 As the GP activity index described in chapter VI (Section VI.3.3.1), a VDC activity index has been constructed based on the numbers of activities involved by each sample VDC. Although the activities performed by both the VDCs are almost similar, the Duar Amla VDC, as per the activity index, has been found to be more active. Moreover, the two sample VDCs in the hill district are found to be more active than the panchayats in the sample plain districts in terms of this index. VIII.3.4 Training of the VDC Personnel As in the case of panchayats, the VDC workers are found to get at most week long trainings on various issues related with VDC functioning. However, such short-term training programmes need to be substituted by more extended and intensive programmes for better skill enhancement of the VDC functionaries. VIII.3.5 Gaon Sabha Meetings and People s Participation The sample VDCs are not found to be much enthusiastic in holding gaon sabha (GS) meetings to discuss village development matters. Even the attendance in the GSs held is reported to be very less. This may be due to the heavy workload of the villagers that make them so tired that they feel little interest to attend such meetings. However, peoples participation in gaon sabhas is better in the sample villages in the hill district than that in the plain districts. This is not necessarily because of the interest of the tribal people in the hills to actively participate in the development process but may be the impact of traditional customs among them. The numbers of gaon sabha meetings held in by the sample VDCs and the attendance of members there are depicted in table

9 The GS effectiveness index (refer Section VI in Chapter VI for construction process) shows GS of Amri VDC to be more effective than that of Duar Amla VDC. Table 8.4: Details of Gaon Sabha Meetings held by the Sample VDCs in Name of the VDC Nos. of GS held Total GS Members Members Attended in Last GS % of Members Attended GS Effectiveness Index Duar Amla Amri VIII.4 Socioeconomic Profile of the Sample Villages VIII.4.1 Social Composition of the Sample Villages The social composition of the two sample villages taken from the hill district of Karbi Anglong is represented in table 8.5. The two sample villages are thinly populated. While Borgaon is having 450 people in 127 households, Khaplang Kunchi is having 276 villagers in only 37 households. All the households in the two villages belong to ST community and Hindu religion. Table 8.5: Social Composition of the Sample Villages Village Name No. of Total Caste (%) Religion (%) Households Population ST Hindu Borgaon Khaplang Kunchi VIII.4.2 Economic Background of the Sample Villages The economic background of the sample villages may be understood from the table 8.6. As evident from the table, most households (60% 67%) in the two villages live in houses provided by the government under IAY scheme. While 20% households 204

10 live in kutcha houses in both the villages, the remaining part of the sample households live in pucca and semi-pucca houses. This clearly indicates that the economic status of the households in both the villages is not much sound where only a few percentages of households can afford to build pucca houses. Most households (50%) in Borgaon earn livelihood by working primarily as daily labourers in agricultural fields and other household activities but most households (60%) in Khaplang Kunchi earn directly from agriculture. Even if households having salaried job holders are very less in both the villages, percentage of such households in Khaplang Kunchi is relatively higher. A few households in both the villages are also engaged in poultry farming and other self-employed business activities. Table 8.6: Economic Background of the Sample Villages Village Name House Type (%) Percentage of Households Engaged in Kutcha Semipucca Pucca IAY House Agricu -lture Salaried Job Daily Labour Other Borgaon Khaplang Kunchi VIII.4.3 Status of Infrastructure in the Sample Villages As in Chapter VI, availability of five different categories of infrastructure services road, electricity, education, health and other - has been surveyed to examine the current status of infrastructure in the sample villages in Karbi Anglong. 205

11 VIII Status of Physical Infrastructure Physical infrastructure in the two sample villages has been captured by availability of roads and electricity supply. Availability of roads has been captured by four components namely length of total roads per hundred population, length of surfaced roads per hundred population, distance of each village from the nearest pucca road and nearest public transport point. The availability of these components of road infrastructure in the sample villages has been depicted in table 8.7. As found during the field survey, both total roads and surfaced roads per hundred population are more in Khaplang Kunchi than in Borgaon. Again, nearest pucca road and nearest public transport point is within 1 km in Borgaon but those are 2-3 km away from Khaplang Kunchi. The road index has been constructed as per the method described in chapter VI (Section VI.4.3). However, a slight change has been made in calculating component indices of total roads and surfaced roads. Here, these indices are constructed by giving scores to each of the two villages out of the scale of highest and lowest availability in the two components. As per the road index, the two sample villages are found to have almost equal availability of road infrastructure. While 70% households are electrified in Khaplang Kunchi, public electricity supply has not been provided in Borgaon. The most households in the village are found to use solar battery chargers to charge batteries which are used as a supplement source of power. 206

12 The physical infrastructure index, average of component indices of road and electricity, in table 8.7 reveals the village Khaplang Kunchi to be better equipped with these infrastructure than the other sample village in the hill district. However, the difference is basically due to non-availability of publicly supplied electricity in Borgaon. VIII Status of Social Infrastructure Social infrastructure has been analysed here taking account of availability of education and health infrastructure facilities in the two sample villages. Status of education infrastructure in the sample villages has been represented by the education index (refer section VI in chapter VI for methodology) in table 8.8 which is the average of the component indices of distance of each village from the nearest LP, ME, high and private LP school. Khaplang Kunchi has been found to have relatively better education infrastructure in terms of the education index. 207

13 Table 8.7: Status of Physical Infrastructure in the Sample Villages Total Surfaced Distance from (km) Village Name Roads/ 00 Roads/ 00 Nearest Nearest population Population Pucca Transport (km) (km) Road Point Road Index % of Electrified Households Physical Infrastructure Index* Borgaon Khaplang Kunchi *Simple average has been taken instead of GM because of existence of 0 value Table 8.8: Status of Social Infrastructure in the Sample Villages Distance from (km) Village Name Nearest Nearest Nearest Nearest Education LP ME High Pvt. LP Infrastructure School School School School Index Nearest PHC Distance from (km) Nearest Nearest Nearest Govt. Nursing Pharmacy Hospital Home Health Index Social Infrastructure Index Borgaon Khaplang Kunchi

14 Table 8.9: Other Infrastructure and Overall Infrastructure Index Values Distance from (km) Percentage of Overall Village Name Nearest Haat Nearest PO Households with Mobile Connection Infrastructure Index Borgaon Khaplang Kunchi Health infrastructure has also been found relatively higher in Khaplang Kunchi than in Borgaon as depicted by the health index (refer section VI in chapter VI for methodology), average of component indices of distance of the sample villages from the nearest government PHC, private health centre, nursing home and pharmacy/medical store. The geometric mean of education index and health index has been considered as the social infrastructure index. As per this index, Khaplang Kunchi is in a better condition in terms of availability of social infrastructure facilities (refer table 8.8). VIII Status of Other Infrastructure Among other infrastructure, nearest village market (haat) is about 10 km away from Borgaon but such market is within 2 km from Khaplang Kunchi. Nearest post office is within 1 km range from both the villages. While nearly 82% sample households in Borgaon are found to have mobile tele-connections, all sample households in Khaplang Kunchi are having this facility. Thus, Khaplang Kunchi is also having relatively better provisions of these infrastructure facilities. 209

15 VIII Status of Overall Infrastructure The overall infrastructure index, shown in table 8.9, has been formulated taking geometric mean of physical and social infrastructure indices. As this index represents, overall infrastructure availability is found relatively better in Khaplang Kunchi compared to the other sample village Borgaon. VIII.5 Socioeconomic Profile of the Sample Households VIII.5.1 Social Composition of the Sample Households The sample population includes nearly 53% male and 47% female in Borgaon village while the percentages of male and female sample population in Khaplang Kunchi are nearly 55% and 45% respectively. Since the two sample villages are inhabited by Hindu families belong to the ST category, all the sample population consequently belongs to Hindu ST category. VIII.5.2 Educational Status of 6+ Age Sample Population Most people in the 6+ age sample population, as presented in table 8.10, are illiterate in the two sample villages. Among the literates, most sample population are found to have high school level education. Sample population getting bachelor degree and higher level education are very less in the two villages. Table 8.10: Percentage Distribution of 6+ Age Sample Population by Years of Schooling Village Name Illiterate 1-4 Standard 5-7 Standard 8-10 Standard Standard Above 13 Standard Borgaon Khaplang Kunchi

16 VIII.5.3 Occupational Structure of the Sample Population The percentage of non-workers in the sample population is more than 60% in the two sample villages indicating very high dependency ratio (refer table 8.11). Thus the percentages of non-workers in the sample villages in the hill district are almost similar to those in the sample villages in the plain districts. Most of the sample population in Borgaon primarily earn their livelihood from daily labour and cultivation while most sample people in Khaplang Kunchi primarily earn from cultivation. Business and Trading Unorganised Pvt. Sector Employee Table 8.11: Percentage Distribution of the Sample Population by Occupation Village Name Govt. Employee Cultivation Daily Labour Nonworkers Borgaon Khaplang Kunchi VIII.5.4 Health Status and Health Care of the Sample Population As depicted in figure 8.1, average numbers of sick days are found to be the highest among the sample population of Borgaon. Most sample people suffering from illness during the reference period are found to take health care from government public health centres/sub-centres in Borgaon but percentages of sick people taking health advice from both government PHC and private health centres are equal in Khaplang Kunchi (refer figure 8.2). A significant percentage of people are also found to take health care from quacks and other such sources in both the villages. 211

17 Figure 8.1: Average No. of Sick Days among the Sample Population Average No. of Sick Days Borgaon Data 6 Khaplang Kunchi Figure 8.2: Distribution of Sick Individuals in the Sample Population by Sources of Health Care Borgaon Khaplang Kunchi Data Govt. PHC Pvt. Health Centre Quacks & Others VIII.5.5 Status of Living of the Sample Households Most of the sample households in the sample villages are found to live in houses provided to them under Indira Awash Yojana (IAY). Percentage of sample households living in pucca houses is less in Khaplang Kunchi than in Borgaon (refer figure 8.3). Figure 8..3: Percentage Distribution of Sample Households by House Type 120 Pucca Semi-pucca 100 IAY Houses 80 Kutcha Borgaon Khaplang Kunchi Data 212

18 While 80% of the sample households are found to be electrified in Khaplang Kunchi, no household is electrified in Borgaon since the village itself is not provided with government electricity supply. All sample households in Borgaon are reported to drink water from piped supply while all sample households in Khaplang Kunchi are reported to drink water from open untreated sources like ponds, river, etc. Most sample households use kutcha toilets for defecation in the two villages. A few households in Borgaon use sanitary toilets but no sample household in Khaplang Kunchi is reported to use sanitary toilet. A few households are also found to defecate in the open in both the villages (refer figure 8.4). Figure 8.4: Percentage Distribution of Sample Households by Sources of Defecation Borgaon Khaplang Kunchi Data Sanitary Kutcha Open Figure 8.5: Percentage Distribution of Sample Households by Cooking Energy Borgaon Khaplang Kunchi Commercial Non-commercial Data As depicted in figure 8.5, only a few percentages of sample households in Borgaon use both non-commercial and commercial energies while no sample household in the other village is found to use commercial energy for cooking. 213

19 VIII.5.6 Access to Public Services and Financial Inclusion of the Sample Households More than 80% households possess job cards in the two villages representing good implementation of MGNREGA. Though percentage of households possessing ration cards is satisfactory in Borgaon, that in Khaplang Kunchi is not encouraging. Percentages of households having bank accounts show a very high financial inclusion of the villagers in both the villages though their access to ATM cards has much to improve (refer table 8.12). Table 8.12: Access to Public Services and Financial Inclusion of the Sample Households Village Name % of Households having % of Households having Job Card Ration Card Bank Account ATM Card Borgaon Khaplang Kunchi VIII.5.7 People s Perception about Effectiveness of Local Institutions All the sample households in the two sample villages believe VDCs to be functional. Percentages of households believing institutions like SMC, SHG and NGO are found less in Borgaon than in Khaplang Kunchi. Though a few households believe FMC to be functional in Borgaon, households deny the existence of such institution in Khaplang Kunchi. It is important to note that percentages of households satisfied with the functioning of village institutions like VDC, SMC, SHG and NGOs are found more in Khaplang Kunchi than in the other village (refer figures ). However, all households 214

20 believing FMCs to be functional in Borgaon also satisfied with Overall, village institutions are found to be more participatory its functioning. and active in Khaplang Kunchi. Figure 8.6: Percentage of Households regarding their Perception on Functioning of VDC 120 Satisfied 100 Indifferent Dissatisfied Borgaon Khaplang Kunchi Source: Field Study 215

21 Figure 8.7: Percentage of Households regarding their Perception on Functioning of SMC 100 Satisfied 90 Indifferent 80 Dissatisfied Borgaon Khaplang Kunchi Figure 8.8: Percentage of Households regarding their Perception on Functioning of SHG 120 Satisfied 100 Indifferent Dissatisfied Borgaon Khaplang Kunchi Figure 8.9: Percentage of Households regarding their Perception on Functioning of NGO 120 Satisfied Indifferent 100 Dissatisfied Figure 8.10: Percentage of Households regarding their Perception on Functioning of FMC 7 Satisfied 6 Indifferent Dissatisfied Borgaon Khaplang Kunchi 0 Borgaon Khaplang Kunchi 216

22 VIII.6 Status of Rural Development and its Improvement To examine the development status and its improvement in the sample villages of Karbi Anglong, a rural development index and an improvement in rural development index have been formulated using the same method described in section VII.2 in chapter VII which are presented in table Table 8.13: Index Values of Rural Development and Rural Development Progress Village Name Rural Development Index Rural Development Improvement Index Borgaon Khaplang Kunchi Data As evident in the table, both level of rural development and improvement in rural development are higher in Khaplang Kunchi than in Borgaon. The village Khaplang Kunchi is relatively more developed not only because of its higher development level achieved in the past but due to its higher rate of improvement in the process of development also. On the other hand, the village Borgaon remains relatively less developed because of its less level of development in the past in one hand and due to its low rate of improvement in the process of development on the other. Thus, relatively more developed sample village has succeeded in adding to its level of development whereas the sample village lagging behind has found to lag behind further in expediting its level of development. It indicates that the lack of convergence in the rural development process observed in the plain villages as mentioned in the previous chapter seems to extend to the sample villages in the hill district. 217

23 VIII.7 Status of Rural Infrastructure and its Progress To examine the status of rural infrastructure and its progress in the sample villages, a rural infrastructure index and a rural infrastructure improvement index have been constructed (refer section VII.2 in chapter VII for methodology). The index values so obtained have been presented in figure Figure 8.11: Infrastructure and Infrastructure Improvement 0.8 Infrastructure Index Infrastructure Improvement Index Borgaon Data Source: Field Study Khaplang Kunchi As evident from the figure, Khaplang Kunchi is found to have not only higher levels of infrastructure but it is also found to experience higher rates of improvement in its infrastructure levels as compared to those in the other village Borgaon. Borgaon is having not only less infrastructure facilities but it has also failed to attain much improvement in its level of infrastructure over time. It clearly indicates towards the tendency of lack of convergence in the progress of infrastructure in the sample villages of the hill district. This is in contrast with the findings in the plain villages where a tendency towards convergence in the process of infrastructure progress 218

24 has been observed. The contradiction in the findings in the villages of the plain and hill districts of the state may arise because of two reasons. First, as in the plain districts, the flagship programmes are not effectively penetrating into the remote and interior areas of the hill district. Secondly, the village institutions in the hill district are less structured and less democratic (as discussed in section VIII.2.2) than those in the plain districts. VIII.8 Status of Rural Institutions With a view to assess the existence and effectiveness of village development councils (VDCs) along with other village level institutions like school management committees (SMCs), self-help groups (SHGs), non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and field management committees (FMCs) for the development of the rural areas in the selected hill district of Assam, information on those institutions have been collected from informed sources and personnel related with such institutions during the field study. To explain the effectiveness of these institutions in accelerating the process of rural development and rural infrastructure improvement by a single measure, an institutional effectiveness index has been constructed based on the information so collected using the methodology explained in section VII.3 in chapter VII. The calculated component and the final institutional effectiveness index values are presented in table As found in the table, village institutions in Khaplang Kunchi are more active than those in Borgaon. 219

25 Table 8.14: Institutional Effectiveness Index Values Village Name VDC Activity Index GS Effectiveness Index Institutional Perception Index Institutional Effectiveness Index Borgaon Khaplang Kunchi Data VIII.9 Correspondence between Rural Development, Rural Infrastructure and Rural Institutions The discussions in sections VIII.6, VIII.7 and VIII.8 above indicate the existence of positive correspondence between the three dimensions of rural development, rural infrastructure and rural institutions in the two sample villages of Karbi Anglong. The village Borgaon is relatively deficient in infrastructure facilities and it is also lagging behind in achieving progress in the levels of infrastructure compared to the other village Khaplang Kunchi. Again, level of development and its progress are also found relatively less in Borgaon than in the other village. Moreover, the grass-roots level institutions in Khaplang Kunchi are more effective than those in Borgaon. Thus the analysis indicates to the positive relationship between infrastructure, development and institutional strength in the two sample villages of the hill district of Karbi Anglong. 220

26 VIII.10 Conclusion The main findings of the analysis in this chapter may be summed up in the following points: There exists a positive relation between infrastructure provision and development attainments in the two sample villages of the hill district. A tendency towards lack of convergence in the process of development has been found in the sample villages. In case of rural infrastructure also, there seems to exist a tendency towards lack of convergence which is contradictory with the findings in the plain villages as discussed in the previous chapter. This contradictory result may be attributed partly to the fact that the flagship programmes have not effectively penetrated to the backward and remote areas of the hill district. In addition, the lack of convergence in the infrastructure process in the villages of the hill district may have also to do with the deficiency of grass-roots level development institutions in the hill areas compared to their counterparts in the non-sixth schedule areas. Grass-roots level institutions of the villages seem to have positive impacts on their status of infrastructure and development. The villages with better grassroots institutions are not only associated with higher levels of infrastructure and its progress but also with higher levels of development and improvement in the development process over time. This suggests for more strengthening and well-structuring of such institutions across villages of the hill district. 221