SOCIO ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OF BPL RATION CARD HOLDERS IN THE STUDY AREA

Transcription

1 Chapter-V SOCIO ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OF BPL RATION CARD HOLDERS IN THE STUDY AREA This is necessary to examine the socio-economic conditions of poor or BPL ration card holders (sample households) in the study area before examining the impact of PDS on their food security. Ration card holders are the beneficiaries who receive the subsidized foodgrains through fair price shops under PDS. It is important to understand the age structure, income, their household assets and education level and also land assets available to them. Apart from these, pattern of their expenditure on education and health is also important, because it will help us to know that to what extent BPL card holders are really deprived or poor on the one hand and also understand the relationship between food security and their socio-economic conditions in the study area. Therefore, in this chapter, discusses the important socio-economic characteristics of the sample households of BPL ration card holders under following headings. 5.1 Structure of the Sample Households The data has been collected from the 500 sample households represent different social groups of the BPL card holders in Chamarajanagar district. Of the total sample, 50 percent of BPL cardholders are from rural and 50 percent are from urban area. The distribution of sample BPL households across castes or social groups is shown in the Table-5.1 and Figure-5.1. The data reveals that in the urban area 36.8 percent BPL families 101

2 are belonging Scheduled Castes (SCs), 19.6 are Schedule Tribes (STs) and 43.6 belong to all other castes. Similarly, in rural areas 42.8 percent Scheduled castes, 8.8 percent Scheduled tribes and 48.4 percent in all other castes households belong to BPL category in the study area. Among SCs, there are more BPL families in the rural area than urban. In the scheduled tribes, more BPL families are in urban area and in other castes more families are under BPL in rural area than urban. Including urban and rural together, 39.8 percent scheduled castes are BPL families compared to 14.2 percent among scheduled tribes and 46 percent are belonging to others category like Kuruba, Devanga, Uppar, Gowda, Muslims, Christians etc,. The SCs and STs together constitute 54 percent (270) and belong to other castes represents 46 percent (230). Table 5.1: Distribution of sample households by social group or Castes in the study Area (n=500) Sl Type of Area No Caste Urban Rural Scheduled Castes (SCs) (92) (107) (199) Scheduled Tribes (STs) (49) (22) (71) Others (109) (121) (230) (250) (250) (500) Note: Data in the parentheses are numbers. 102

3 Figure 5.1: Percentage of sample households across social groups 5.2 Age Group of the Respondents (BPL Card holders) The respondents were classified into various age groups and the results are furnished in the Table-5.2. Among four age compositions, majority, 40 per cent of the BPL card holders are below the age of 40 years, 27.2 percent are in between years, 15.6 percent are in between years and 17.2 percent are above 61 years. The age structure across social groups such as Scheduled caste and Scheduled tribes is that more number of BPL card holders come under the below 40 years compared to others. In others group more number of BPL card holders are below 40 years and are also in between years. In the years category, there is no much variations among these social groups and only ST 103

4 group BPL card holders are found less compared to SC and others in the age of sixty one years and above category. Table 5.2: Age structure of BPL Card Holders across Social Groups Sl Caste-wise (%) No Age group SC ST Others < 40 (83) (35) (82) (200) (47) (16) (73) (136) (31) (11) (36) (78) and above (38) (9) (39) (86) (199) (71) (230) (500) Note: Data in the parentheses are numbers The age structure of BPL card holders are also given in the following table (Table- 5.3) which clearly reveals that nearly 45 percent of urban BPL card holders fall below 40 years and 26.8 percent in between 41-50, only 10 percent in sixty years and around 18 percent above 60 one years. Whereas BPL card holders who are belong to rural area, although below forty years is more (35 per cent) but it is less than urban. Among the rural BPL card holders, 35 percent of card holders age is below 40 years and 27.6 and 21.2 percent come under and years, respectively. The overall results clearly indicates that of the total BPL card holders, 50 years and below constitute around 67 percent. 104

5 Table 5.3: Distribution of age structure of BPL Card holders by Rural and Urban areas Age Type of area Urban Rural < (112) (88) (200) (67) (69) (136) (25) (53) and above (46) (40) (86) (250) (250) (500) Note: Data in the parentheses are numbers 5.3 Religion of the Sample Households The religions of BPL families in the study area are given in the Ttable-5.4. The composition is such that in the urban area 83.2 percent BPL families are belonging to Hindu religion, the next is Muslims at 16.4 percent and very marginal in Christian that is only 0.4 percent. In the rural area 99.6 percent BPL families are Hindus, Muslims are just 0.4 percent and no Christian families. An overall (including both urban and rural areas) the percentage of Hindus in the total sample is 91.4 percent, only 8.4 percent are Muslims and 0.2 percent are Christians. 105

6 Table 5.4: Distribution of BPL families by Religion (%) Religion Type of area Urban Rural Hindu (208) (249) (457) Muslim (41) (1) (42) Christian (1) 0 (1) (250) (250) (500) Note: Data in the parentheses are numbers 5.4 Educational status of the BPL Card Holders The education level of BPL card holders can be seen in the Table-5.5. It can be found from the table that the overall illiteracy rate of BPL card holders was 84.2 per cent and it ranged between 82.8 per cent among urban and 85.6 percent in rural BPL card holders. Among urban BPL card holders, 82.8 percent of them are illiterates, only 0.4 percent of them have primary education, 2.8 percent of the card holders have higher primary and 11.6 percent high school, 1.6 percent PUC and 0.8 percent have graduation level of education. It is interesting to know that even with considerable level of education the BPL card holders are still living below poverty line. Among rural BPL card holde rs, 85.6 percent are illiterate which is higher than urban card holders. 106

7 Table 5.5: Educational status of the BPL Card holders (%) Education Type of Area Urban Rural Illiterate (207) (214) (421) Primary (1) (2) (3) Middle School (7) (2) (9) High School (29) (26) (55) PUC (4) (4) (8) Degree (2) (2) (4) (250) (250) (500) Note: Data in the parentheses are numbers. After having looked into education level of BPL card holders across urban-rural areas, it is appropriate to know the education level of BPL card holders by their caste. The education levels of BPL card holders among different social groups are shown in the Table-5.6 and Figure-5.2. Illiterates are more among SCs (88.9 per cent) and STs (87.3 per cent) when compares to others (79.1 per cent) But, BPL card holders with primary and middle school education is very marginal almost all the categories having less than three percent. Very interesting thing is that 7.5 percent of SCs, 9.9 percent of STs and 14.3 of other category BPL card holders are having high school education. The results clearly show that the literacy level among BPL card holders in the study area was just 15.8 per cent only. 107

8 Table 5.6: Educational status of BPL Cardholders across Social Groups. Caste Education SC ST Others Illiterate (177) (62) (182) (421) Primary (1) (1) (1) (3) Middle School High School PUC Degree Note: Data in the parentheses are numbers (3) (0) (6) (9) (15) (7) (33) (55) (1) (1) (6) (8) (2) (0) (2) (4) (199) (71) (230) (500) Figure 5.2: Education of BPL card holders in the study area (%) 108

9 5.5 Ownership and Si ze of Landholdings among the BPL Card Holders The ownership of land resources is very important for all whether they belong to urban or rural and any socially marginalized groups in Indian set up. This is mainly because of that it ensures some food and income for the family. Therefore, it is an important parameter to understand in the context of food security of the poor in the study area. Most of the households in the study area landless and those who are having small piece of land consider themselves as landless as the returns from the land are insignificant. The following Table-5.7 gives picture of about the BPL families across social groups with land ownership. Among SCs, only 12.6 percent of them have land resources, it is 2.8 percent for scheduled tribes and 11.7 percent for others and only 10.8 percent of total BPL families have land ownership in the study area percent of scheduled castes, 97.2 percent of scheduled tribes and 89.2 percent of other social groups do not have land resources or ownership in the study area. Table 5.7: Land ownership of BPL families across Social Groups (%) Ownership of land Yes No Note: Data in the parentheses are numbers Caste SC ST Others (25) (2) (27) (54) (174) (69) (203) (446) (199) (71) (230) (500) 109

10 The Table-5.8 reveals that the BPL families accesses to land resources across rural and urban in the study area. Only 4.4 percent of urban BPL families have land ownership and 95.6 of urban BPL families have no accesses to important resources. In rural area it is little bit different than the urban because its percentage is higher percent of rural BPL families are owns the land and remaining 82.8 percent have no ownership in rural area. Table 5.8: Land ownership of BPL families (%) Ownership of land Type of Area Urban Rural Yes (11) (43) (54) No (239) (207) (446) (250) (250) (500) Note: Data in the parentheses are numbers The following Table-5.9 and Figure-5.3 also provides details about the size of landholdings of BPL families in the study area. Among SCs, 9.5 percent of them have up to one acre, scheduled tribes owning land up to one acre is just 1.4 percent and among others is 6.8 percent. Above one acre owned by scheduled castes is 3 percent, among scheduled tribes is 1.4 percent and other social groups are 5.7 percent in the study area. Only 6.8 percent among all social groups own only one acre and more than one acre is just 4 percent. The data on landownership is clearly shows that the maximum number (89.2 percent) of the BPL families in the study area are landless. 110

11 Table 5.9: Status of Landholdings across Social Groups Acres of land Caste SC ST Others Landless (no land) (174) (69) (203) (446) Up to 1 acre (19) (1) (14) (34) Above 1 acre (6) (1) (13) (20) (199) (71) (230) (500) Note: Data in the parentheses are numbers Figure 5.3: Size of Landholdings of the BPL Families Although some of the BPL families own land, they have dry land only, for anything they to depend on rain. The following table clearly gives that picture, the percentage of BPL families owning land is only 10.8 percent, out of which 8.6 percent is having rain fed 111

12 land and irrigated is 2.2 percent only. Among scheduled castes 3 percent is having irrigated land and 9.5 percent are having rain fed land. In the case of scheduled tribes no family is having irrigated land and that 2.2 percent of the families owning land is dry or rain fed. The other social group owning irrigated land is also 2.2 percent and 9.6 percent of the families have rain fed land only. Table 5.10: Type of Land across social groups Nature of land Caste SC ST Others Landless (174) (69) (203) (446) Irrigated land (6) (0) (5) (11) Rain fed (19) (2) (22) (43) (199) (71) (230) (500) Note: Data in the parentheses are numbers 5.6 Ownership of housing among the BPL Card Holders Another important parameter to understand BPL families socio-economic conditions is used here is that how many of them own houses and this has been examined both in terms of urban, rural and across different social groups in the study area. The Table-5.11 explains the how many BPL families are having own houses across urban and rural. Among urban poor, around 56 percent of families having own houses and 43.6 do not have own houses, these families either reside in rented houses or temporary sheds of others. In the rural areas, 76.4 percent of them have own houses only 23.6 percent of the 112

13 rural BPL families do not own houses and they are living in temporary sheds owned by rich or big farmers in the villages. The percentage of BPL families does not own houses are 33.6 percent including both urban and rural families in the study area. An overall, 66.4 per cent of the BPL card holders owns houses and reaming are houseless. It has observed that the housing condition of the sample BPL families in the study area is very poor. Even though, those who own houses (66.4 percent) those conditions of houses (builted with mud walls) are not in good shape and is in collapsing stage. Table 5.11: Ownership position of house Ownership of house Type of Area Urban Rural Owned (141) (191) (332) Rented (109) (59) (168) (250) (250) (500) Note: Data in the parentheses are numbers The type of ownership of house among social groups also can be seen in the Table Around 77 percent of SCs own houses and remaining 23 percent do not have their own houses, among scheduled tribes only 46 percent of them have their own houses and 53.5 percent of the families are not having own houses. Whereas, other groups 63 percent have houses and 37 percent do not have houses. The ownership of house among STs is very low at 46.5 percent than other two groups. One of the ground reality is that even though many of the BPL families own houses, the conditions of these houses are not good enough to live or expect healthy accommodation for these families. The existing 113

14 houses are very small (congested) without proper ventilation and do not have basic facilities such as toilet, water connection etc. Similarly, the conditions of the BPL families that do not own houses in the study area are not different than that of families own ho uses. Table 5.12: Ownership of house across social groups Ownership of house Owned Rented Note: Data in the parentheses are numbers Caste SC ST Others (154) (33) (145) (332) (45) (38) (85) (168) (199) (71) (230) (500) 5.7 Possession of Domestic Animals among the BPL Card Holders The families of BPL which have domestic animals for dairy and other income generating purposes is taken in to considerations in our study to know what extent they are poor. It is clear from the Tables and 5.14 only few families (9 percent) have possessed domestic animals. Among scheduled castes it is 8.5 percent, scheduled tribes 5.6 percent and in other group 10.4 percent. 114

15 Table 5.13: Possession of Domestic animals across social groups Ownership of domestic animals Caste SC ST Others Yes (17) (4) (24) (45) No (182) (67) (206) (455) (199) (71) (230) (500) Note: Data in the parentheses are numbers If look at across urban and rural, 14.8 percent of rural BPL families and 3.2 percent urban families have possessed domestic animals from their respective counter parts. There is more than 11 percent difference between urban and rural area in case of ownership of domestic animals. Table 5.14: Family owns Domestic animals Owns domestic animals Yes No Type of Area Urban Rural (8) (37) (45) (242) (213) (455) (250) (250) (500) 5.7 Possession of Household Amenities among BPL Card Holders The possession of television (TV) and vehicles are the modern household amenities, which are the entertainment indicators of the family. The household assets such as, television, vehicles and other assets are also given here to understand the BPL families 115

16 situations in the study area. How many of the families have television is one of our main question, this is to know what extent the BPL families deprived of entertainment and information as these two are important in any family. The following Tables-5.15 and 5.16 explains that only 23.4 percent of BPL card holders have TVs and 76.6 percent do not have TVs in the study area. One of the interesting observations is that of the total sample, more number of rural families has possessed TV sets than who are living in urban areas. Among the rural BPL card families, 24 percent are having TVs in their houses and 76 percent do not have the entertainment asset of TV. The BPL card holders, who are living in the urban areas and possessed TV is just 22.8 percent of the families. It can be seen from the table-5.16 one can find that percentage of the BPL families owning TVs across different social groups. Scheduled castes families owning TVs is 16.1 percent, scheduled tribes 29.6 percent and others 27.8 percent. It is scheduled caste families who are having less percentage compared to other two groups and scheduled tribes is having higher percentage than other two groups in the study area. Table 5.15: Possession of Television by type of Area Owns T.V Type of Area Urban Rural Yes (57) (60) (117) No (193) (190) (383) (250) (250) (500) 116

17 Table 5.16: Possession of Television by Social groups Ownership of TV Caste SC ST Others Yes (32) (21) (64) (117) No (167) (50) (166) (383) (199) (71) (230) (500) Another important household asset is two wheeler considered into account to find out how many BPL card holders have owns or not. The Table-5.17 provides details about the number of families owns two wheelers (bicycle, moped) across the different social groups in the study area. Among the total sample, 4 percent of scheduled caste, 1.4 percent of scheduled tribes and 5.7 percent of other caste families owns the vehicles. On an overall, only 4.4 percent of the BPL families have vehicles and rest of the 95.6 percent families do not owns any vehicles in the study area. Table 5.17: Possession of Two Wheeler Vehicle Ownership of vehicles Yes No Caste SC ST Others (8) (1) (13) (22) (191) (70) (217) (478) (199) (71) (230) (500) 117

18 The possession of household assets among BPL families in the study area is very poor. All the scheduled caste and scheduled tribes do not posses any valuable assets, even among other social groups are having the same condition in the study area. Value of the assets that BPL families own in the study area is not worthy also in terms of quality. In brief, most of the BPL ration card families are lack in the ownership of household assets due to poverty and they deprived in the society. 5.8 Monthly Income of the BPL Card Holders Adequate level of income for any family indicates the standard of living. The landlessness among BPL card holders continued to be a major problem, which is challenging for them to maintain minimum level of livelihood in the society. Wage labour is the major source of income for most of the BPL households in the study area. The family monthly income of these BPL families by social group is depicted in the Table A family earning Rs or less annually was considered as BPL family in the year by the Government of India. However, in the study, data on family income of BPL card holders have been calculated on monthly basis and considered for the year The total monthly income of the family is varies between Rs to Rs and above. The percentage of BPL families from scheduled castes having less than Rs.1000 monthly income was found 22.6 percent, scheduled tribes is 11.3 and other castes is 17.4 percent and including all the castes having Rs.1000 or less is 18.6 percent in the study area. The scheduled castes having income of Rs.1001 to 1500 is 38.2, scheduled tribes 36.6 and other castes is 33.5 percent respectively. In the group of Rs.1501 to 2000, 19.1 percent are 118

19 Scheduled castes, 19.7 percent are scheduled tribes and 25.2 percent is other castes. For Rs.2001 to 2500, scheduled caste is 7 percent, scheduled tribe is 15.5 percent and other castes is 7.4 percent. And scheduled castes who are in the income range of Rs.2501 to 3000 is 7 percent, scheduled tribes is 11.3 percent and other castes is 10 percent. The percentage of scheduled castes having monthly income of Rs.3001 and above is just 6 percent, STs and others are also 5.6 and 6.5 percent, respectively. Table 5.18: Monthly Income of the Family Monthly income of family (Rs) < and above Caste SC ST Others (45) (8) (40) (93) (76) (26) (77) (179) (38) (14) (58) (110) (14) (11) (17) (42) (14) (8) (23) (45) (12) (4) '(15) (31) (199) (71) (230) (500) Monthly income of the BPL card holders across urban and rural areas can be seen in the Table Of all the households with income less than Rs constitutes nearly 76 percent in the study area. But, percentage of families income of Rs.1000 or less in urban is higher i.e 23.6 percent, compared to rural areas which is 13.6 percent. Income range of 119

20 families from Rs.1001 to 1500 in urban is 32 percent and rural is 39.6 percent. Similarly in the range of Rs.1501 to 2000 is 24.8 for urban and 19.2 in rural areas. For other income range of Rs.2001 to 2500 is 8.4 percent for both urban and rural areas. Table 5.19: Distribution of monthly income of the sample households across rural & urban Monthly Income Type of Area Urban Rural < (59) (34) (93) (80) (99) (179) (62) (48) (110) (21) (21) (42) (15) (30) (45) 3001 and above (250) (500) 100 (250) Of all the BPL card holder households, around 54 percent of the BPL households had the income under the limit of Rs per month, whereas 39 percent of the households had the income ranging between Rs to Rs and just 6.2 percent of the households had the monthly income Rs and above. 120

21 5.9 Expenditure on Children s Education among BPL Card Holders Majority of the families are not able to spend any on their children s education. This can be seen in the following Table In the urban area, 74.4 percent of the families are not able to spend anything on education and in rural area it is 52 percent. But, 5.6 percent of urban BPL families are able to spend Rs.250 per annum, 22.4 percent of the families can spend Rs.250 on education in rural area. And 7.6 of urban and 10.4 percent of rural families are able to spend up to Rs.500 per annum in the study area. Nearly 63.2 percent of total BPL families are not in position to spend any money on their children s education. The percentage of families who can afford to spend Rs.500 and above is also very little. It is 5.8 percent up to Rs.1000, 5.4 percent up to Rs.3000 and above Rs.3000 is only 2.6 percent across urban and rural area. The difference between urban and rural areas for these different ranges will not vary much and it is only within two percent points in the above Rs.500 and more. 121

22 Table 5.20: Monthly fee and Annual fee Private Fees in Private (educational institute) Zero < and above Type of Area Urban Rural (186) (130) (316) (14) (56) (70) (19) (26) (45) (11) (18) (29) (12) (15) (27) (8) (5) (13) (250) (250) (500) Most of the ST families (69 percent) were not spending any amount of money on their childrens education (Table-5.21). Whereas, SCs (58.8 percent) and others (65.2 percent) were also not spending the money on their children for education purpose. Who are able to spend up to Rs.250 in the scheduled caste accounted 12.6 percent, among scheduled tribes was 15.5 percent and in the other caste was 14.8 percent. Including all castes it is 14 percent. Above Rs.250 but within Rs.500 is 9.5 percent for scheduled caste, 7 percent for scheduled tribes and 9.1 percent for other castes and including all castes it is 9 percent. Up to Rs.1000, 8 percent for scheduled caste, 4.2 percent for scheduled tribes and 4.3 for other castes and including all caste is 5.8 percent. Up to Rs.3000, the scheduled caste is having 8 122

23 percent, scheduled tribes 2.8 percent, other caste 3.9 percent and for all castes 5.4 percent. Above Rs.3000 very small percentage is there for all caste groups. 3 percent of scheduled caste, 1.4 percent scheduled tribes, 2.6 percent of other caste and 2.6 percent for all castes in study area. Table 5.21: Monthly fee and Annual fee - Private Fee structure Caste SC ST Others Zero (117) (49) (150) (316) < (25) (11) (34) (70) (19) (5) (21) (45) (16) (3) (10) (29) (16) (2) (9) (27) 3001 and above (6) (1) (6) (13) (199) (71) (230) (500) 123

24 5.10 Expenditure on Health Care among BPL Card Holders The monthly expenditure of the BPL families on health in the study area across urban and rural is shown in the Table In the urban area, 85.6 percent of the BPL families spend nothing on health which includes visiting private hospital, paying doctors fee and purchasing medicines from private stores. Their counter parts in the rural area also 90.8 percent of the families can not afford to spend any thing on their health. ly 85.6 percent of the BPL family monthly hospital expenditures are zero only. It means, these 85.6 percent of the families are depending only on government hospital for health care and treatment in the study area if they face any diseases. However, some of the BPL families are spending money on their health care by visiting to private hospital/clinics for treatment. There are 3.6 percent of the urban and 0.4 percent of rural families spending Rs.400 per month. In the case of Rs.500, there are 0.4 percent urban and 1.6 of rural families. Only 0.4 percent of urban families are spending Rs.1000 per month for hospital purpose in the study area. These results clearly indicate that there are more rural BPL families who can not afford to visit private hospital than in the urban area. In the urban area, the BPL families have physical access to private hospital mainly because these hospitals are mostly located in the urban area. Therefore, these families make an attempt to go to these hospitals compared to their counter part in the rural area. On an overall, more number of the BPL card families in the study area are largely depending on public hospitals (which is run by government) for health check up and treatment. 124

25 Table 5.22: Monthly Hospital Expenditure of BPL families (Private Hospital) Type of Area Amount spent (Rs) Urban Rural (219) (231) (428) (0) (1) (11) (0) (6) (14) (9) (7) (16) (2) (1) (3) (9) (3) (12) (9) (1) (10) (1) (0) (5) (1) (0) (1) (250) (250) (500) The following Table-5.23 explains that the common diseases prevailing among the BPL ration card holding families in the study area. 98 percent of urban families have not reported any major diseases and 91.6 percent in rural families also have not reported any major problems in the health of their family members. The total number of families not having reported any diseases from both urban and rural areas is 94.8 percent. 125

26 Table 5.23: Nature of Common Diseases among BPL families (%) Nature of aliments Type of Area Urban Rural No ailement / major diseses (245) (229) (474) Astama and B.P (1) (0) (1) Normal (2) (21) (23) Piles problem (1) (0) (1) Stomach pain (1) (0) (1) (250) (250) (500) The rest of the families have reported Astama, Blood Pressure (BP), Piles and Stomach Pain and other common problems and their percentage is very marginal among BPL families in the study area. Similarly, the social groups of BPL families have reported in the following way (Table-5.24), among scheduled castes, percent says that they do not suffering from major health problems, 98.6 percent of the Scheduled tribes have also reported the same. In the other groups, it is 93.4 percent. The rest of the families in these social groups are suffering from Astama, BP, Piles, Stomach pain and other common problems. One of the major observation that has been made during the time of collecting household information from BPL families in the study area is that most of the family members including children of the family are not well built and showing very poor physical standard and they are of course malnourished. The reason for reporting no disease at higher rate of percentage is that they do not go doctors regularly for common problems or symptoms and only when they face acute problem they go to doctors for treatment. They 126

27 do not aware or having information about any diseases also. Therefore, many of the BPL families don t consider anything so seriously unless that health problem becomes and reaches stage of seriousness. As result of this percentage of knowing the existence and reporting the same considered to be very low. Hence, the results showing higher percentage for not having any major ailments may not reveal clear picture about the health conditions of the members of the BPL families in the study area. Table 5.24: Common Health diseases among Family Members of the BPL families across Social Groups. Ailment No ailement Astama and B.P Normal Piles proplem Stomach pain Caste SC ST Others (188) (70) (216) (474) (0) (0) (1) (1) (11) (1) (11) (23) (0) (0) (1) (1) (0) (0) (1) (1) (199) (71) (230) (500) Thus the foregoing discussion clearly demonstrated that the geographical features of the study area and socio-economic characteristics of the sample households give a broad picture. It was found that the poverty has great bearing on livelihood system of both rural and urban BPL ration card holding families across social groups. All these will be kept in mind while analysis is made in the next chapter. 127