Research Paper. John Mitchell Energy, Environment and Resources May Asia s Oil Supply. Risks and Pragmatic Remedies.

Transcription

1 Research Paper John Mitchell Energy, Environment and Resources May 2014 Asia s Oil Supply Risks and Pragmatic Remedies Chatham House

2 Contents 1 Summary 2 2 Background 9 3 Scenarios 14 4 Macroeconomic Effect 21 5 Response: Mitigating the Impact 25 6 Conclusions 31 Annex 1: The Scenarios 33 Annex 2: Fast-access Stock Transfers (FAST) 34 Acknowledgments 39 About the Author 40 1 Chatham House

3 1. Summary Asia is more at risk from disruption of Middle East oil supplies than is either Europe or the United States, yet as a whole it is less prepared to deal with such an upheaval. (Asia here includes Northeast, East, Southeast and South Asia and Australasia, and is also often referred to in this paper as the Asia-Pacific region.) This paper analyses the risks that major Asian importers would face if oil supplies through the Strait of Hormuz were disrupted on a large scale for example, if 10 million barrels a day (mbd) were interrupted for 90 days. It does not discuss the many possible causes of such a disruption, nor does it speculate on political or other responses in the Gulf or explore what might be the various mediumterm developments in price, demand and supply. But it does discuss the capacity of Asian countries to maintain oil supplies for longer periods of disruption by drawing down stocks or using financial reserves to outbid competing importers for the limited supplies available. Every Asian government would inevitably respond to a major disruption of oil supplies. Uncertainty about governments interventions would add to the risk premium generated by uncertainty about physical supplies. This paper identifies priorities for policies to mitigate these uncertainties. The supply risk for liquefied natural gas (LNG) is different from the oil supply risk for Asia and is touched on only briefly in this paper. This paper identifies five priorities in the development of policies to mitigate these uncertainties: 1. Establishing a process involving the IEA, China and India to facilitate a very rapid and convincing announcement of a coherent response to any major disruption in Middle East oil supplies; 2. Further developing schemes by which exporting national oil companies (NOCs) hold stocks in importing countries; 3. Clarifying the policies of crude and oil-product exporters for allocating supplies between domestic consumption, exports and bunkers when those supplies are curtailed by disruption, especially in Asian product-exporting countries; 4. Developing mechanisms to target a rapid release of emergency stocks to companies affected by force majeure disruptions; and 5. Promoting government and industry cooperation at the national level to ensure continuity of supply to consumers in the event of disruption. The problem As Asia s dependence on oil imports has grown, it has become the focus of potential insecurity in the world oil market. Today Asia accounts for about 40% of world oil trade and buys 75% of Middle East oil exports. The Middle East, which has been the source of five major disruptions of oil markets during the past 40 years, now supplies nearly 50% of Asian oil consumption, compared with 12% and 16% of US and European consumption, respectively. Asian dependence on the Middle East varies from country to country in the region (75% of total consumption in Korea and 30% in China), as does the ability of those countries to withstand and respond to disruptions in the oil supply. The impact of the disruption on consumers in each country would depend partly on the impact in, and policy responses of, its trading partners for example, exporters of refined products to Australia would be affected by the extent of the impact of the supply disruption on those countries. 2 Chatham House

4 Summary It would also depend on the share of supplies through the Strait of Hormuz in total consumption in each country. This ranges from more than 90% in Bangladesh and the Philippines to 22% in China and 11% in Australia (17% if imports of products from countries dependent on Hormuz supplies are included). If supplies through the Strait of Hormuz were disrupted, exporters would choose how to allocate remaining supplies. This could be either through sharing among existing customers or by looking after their own giving preference to refineries in importing countries, including some Asian importers such as Japan and Korea, and the United States. A major question is to what extent governments can rely on the flexibility of the global oil market to respond to a major disruption. Such a disruption would force Asian importers to seek additional supplies from Africa, Central Asia, Russia and South America, bidding up prices for all oil importers and affecting both the global shipping and oil markets. Uncertainty about governments reactions would add a risk premium to the oil price. The income of Middle East oil exporters would be affected too. If the disruption were not managed well, volatility would damage the long-term interests of producers and consumers alike. Besides causing general upheaval on the world oil market, a major disruption would trigger special difficulties in Asia, for the following reasons: Nearly 30% of Asian consumption is supplied by imports of products, mostly from refineries in Asia (India, Korea and Singapore), which, in turn, are dependent on the Middle East for more than half of their crude supplies. How product-exporting companies and countries chose to allocate reduced supplies would affect Australia and Thailand in particular. No single Asian country can easily isolate itself from the knock-on effects on regional product trade. Oil stocks are low, except in Korea and Japan, as most countries have avoided the cost of building up emergency stocks. Asian importers depend on the flexibility and capacity of shipping companies. It takes longer to ship oil from Africa or South America than from the Middle East. Thus even if availability were increased by the release of oil from US and European emergency stocks, there would be a brief period of acute shortage before supplies of oil could be redirected from the Atlantic markets. Interventions by Asian governments would be inevitable. Every government would be impelled to intervene in the oil trade, but no mechanism exists for coordinating such interventions outside the OECD members of the International Energy Agency (IEA). The immediate impact of any major disruption would be confusion among governments and companies as regards their obligations, the tendency towards a free-for-all in the market and large price increases reflecting local shortages and the uncertainties about government actions. The scenarios The oil market is extremely flexible and patterns of trade can change in response to demand, supply and price. Scenario-building is necessarily mechanical and interpretation must be qualified by the reality that the market knows more and responds with much greater subtlety than can be represented. The trade statistics available from national and international sources are not always consistent and do not always track origins and ultimate destinations. The statistics in the scenarios are compiled from a variety of sources and must therefore be treated as broad indicators. 3 Chatham House

5 Summary Our analysis is based on hypothetical scenarios in which 10 mbd of oil supplies through the Strait of Hormuz are interrupted for three months. Data for 2012 have been projected to a baseline of 2015, which is taken as a representative year for the short term. Numbers are rough some trade flows are estimated and include natural gas liquids (NGL), liquid petroleum gases (LPG) and aviation and marine fuels. Each of these categories would have specific problems in the event of a major disruption of traffic through the Strait of Hormuz. In reality, of course, the duration and even the scale of the disruption would be uncertain. Its impact would depend on the flexibility of shipping and other sources of supply at the time. Moreover, decisions would be influenced by events in the Gulf. Our baseline scenario, assumes that Asian oil consumption will exceed the 2012 level by 2 mbd and the increase will be met almost entirely from outside the Middle East (the Atlantic basin, Russia and Central Asia). The Middle East would supply about 14.5 mbd to Asia out of total exports of 19 mbd. If the new UAE pipeline to Fujairah and the expanded Saudi pipelines to Yanbu were used to full capacity, total oil exports through the Strait of Hormuz would be about 12.4 mbd, of which 9.8 mbd would go to Asia, on the assumption that trade patterns were the same in 2015 as in A loss of 10 mbd through the Strait of Hormuz does not imply total closure: traffic has exceeded 17 mbd in the past. The remaining Middle East export capacity would be about 9 mbd. How exporters would allocate that capacity is critical for Asian importers. The main exporters to Asia are state companies; most of their exports are under term contracts, which would probably require sharing in proportion to their long-term contracts (but may well have escape clauses); this would be the first scenario. In a second scenario, their approach might be to look after their own refineries and joint-venture refineries in importing countries. Since most of those refineries are in either the United States or Asia, such policies would work to the advantage of Asian and US consumers and to the disadvantage of those in Europe. Figure 1 shows how exporters choice of scenario would potentially affect exports during a 10 mbd interruption in supplies through the Strait of Hormuz, compared with the baseline of no disruption. Figure 1: Potential impact of exporters allocations on Middle East oil exports mbd 14 Outside Hormuz Through Hormuz Baseline Sharing Looking after our own Baseline Sharing Looking after our own Baseline Sharing Looking after our own Asia Europe US Source: Scenarios (Annex 1). 4 Chatham House

6 Summary In the event of a disruption, each importer and its government would canvass exporters and their governments for the allocation most favourable to the importing country. Unless exporting governments had committed in advance to one policy or the other, there would be a period of confusion until policies became clear, and it would be difficult for the IEA and importing governments to frame a detailed response. This would add to the uncertainty and risk premiums in global oil prices. In a supply disruption of the scale assumed, the IEA would act but others would need to be involved too in order to help mitigate the potential economic damage. Decisions would have to be taken, despite uncertainty about the potential length of the disruption and the effectiveness of measures that might be needed to deal with its cause. Prices Prices would inevitably be the main factor determining how oil would be allocated in international trade during a major disruption. However, regardless of the exporters allocations, pricing would be chaotic. The Dubai benchmark would be meaningless in these circumstances, while the Brent and WTI (US) benchmarks would be disconnected and in the short term insulated from the crisis of supply in Asia. This would cause problems for many Asian countries that control domestic prices and subsidize them: if such countries did not increase domestic prices, refiners would not bid for more expensive oil without an increase in the subsidy bill, which is already large in some countries. A serious disruption of oil supplies through Hormuz would increase prices and curtail volumes. The extent and duration of such price increases for internationally traded oil is difficult to predict; it is for this reason that the analysis below focuses on the ability of various Asian countries to obtain supplies by paying for more expensive imports. In 2012 no less than 60% of revenues from Pakistan s non-oil exports were used to pay for oil imports; the corresponding figures for Sri Lanka and India exceeded 30%, while those for Japan, Korea and China were 20%, 15% and 10%, respectively. Even with lower import volumes, the effects on the balance of trade and the exchange rate would range from significant to intolerable. Besides adjustments to their trade, countries would have the option of meeting the additional cost of oil imports by drawing down their foreign-exchange reserves. These, too, vary widely from country to country. While in theory China could cover a 50% increase in the price of oil imports by drawing down foreign reserves at about 3% annually for 30 years, Pakistan s reserves would be exhausted within one year and those of India, Australia and Sri Lanka within about five years. Continuity of supply Stocks Some Asian countries hold oil stocks under direct government control. Most have the authority to direct the use of companies commercial stocks in an emergency. However, in the event of a disruption in supplies, companies would have normal commercial needs and might differ with the authorities over the level of stocks to hold against the possibility of continuing disruption. The ability to maintain supplies by drawing down stocks differs from country to country in Asia. Among the main Asian IEA members, there would still be a sufficient level of government and commercial stocks at the end of the assumed 90-day period to cover the risk of another 90 days of disruption. Korea and Japan could maintain supplies for 90 days by drawing down 30% and 20% 5 Chatham House

7 Summary of their total stocks, respectively. They would be less affected (needing to draw down 15% and 10%, respectively) if exporters chose to look after their own because of investment by Middle East exporters in those countries. Outside the IEA Asian countries, China, which has exporters refineries on its territory, would use 33% and 1% of its stocks, respectively, to maintain domestic consumption under the two scenarios outlined above ( sharing and looking after their own ); but Indian stocks would be exhausted in less than one month in both cases. Singapore s stocks would cover the domestic shortfall for at least six months; however, exports would depend on the balance between product imports and exports in the disrupted market. Product exports In 2012, 6 mbd (20% of consumption) in Asia were supplied by products imported from refineries elsewhere in the region, mainly in Korea, India and Singapore. About 40% of the input to these refineries comes from the Middle East and would be disrupted by restrictions in the Strait of Hormuz. Governments of the product-exporting countries could react to a disruption of supplies by imposing limits on the export of products. If (as is most likely) a policy of limiting exports were expressed in guidance without explicit legal instructions, the exporting refineries would have to overcome the conflict between such guidance and their contractual obligations. Product-importing countries, particularly Australia and Thailand, would face shortfalls of 5 10% of consumption owing to their dependence on product imports supported by Middle East crude; they would also face disruptions of direct crude supply through the Strait of Hormuz. Export refineries and their customers would seek immediate clarification of government policies; however, reassurances beforehand would be preferable. The same problem arises for international bunkers, particularly in major bunkering hubs such as Singapore, where bunker demand is greater than domestic consumption. Bunkers are generally supplied by global companies; thus the question for the government in a hub country would be whether to give these companies the freedom to supply their international customers without obliging them to divert fuel for domestic consumption. Middle East refineries are an important source of fuel oil for bunkers, and disruption of shipping through the Strait of Hormuz would increase the potential for a bunker shortage in the region. Infrastructure and shipping There are physical constraints to the trade shifts that would be necessary to respond to a disruption of supplies through Hormuz. Many ships would be trapped in the Gulf. Voyage times from alternative crude sources such as West Africa are 10 to 15 days longer than those from the Middle East to East Asia. Moreover, ships on the water might be in the wrong places. Grades of crude and products available from replacement sources might not match those required by refineries and markets. It might be necessary to relax some product specifications to overcome the mismatch, and governments might need to facilitate inter-company cooperation, which under normal circumstances would be contrary to competition law. Exporting companies might be persuaded to relax restrictions on re-sales and swaps. 6 Chatham House

8 Summary The role of the IEA Because of the size of the stocks owned and controlled by IEA member countries, the initial effect of a disruption on the market would largely be determined by whether the IEA, in coordination with the Chinese and Indian governments, swiftly announces a large and credible programme of stock releases to markets in each region. In China, Korea and Japan (and India if storage currently under construction had been filled), this would mean releases from government-owned stocks (but could include obligated industry stocks as well), combined with demand restraints in countries where such was the appropriate early official response. Bilateral cooperation between exporters and importers It is in the interest of oil-exporting countries and companies to demonstrate their commitment to importing markets by contributing to arrangements for securing supply in the event of disruption. The level of stocks in Korea and Japan is sufficient to allow those countries some freedom to support the stability of the Asian market over and above their IEA commitments, provided that the legislation governing those stocks permits them to do so. For example, the governments of Korea, Japan and Singapore could conclude bilateral agreements with the governments of countries importing products from their refineries to ensure those importers continued supply, albeit at international market prices. Higher stock levels in India and possibly elsewhere could be achieved if governments (or independent storage companies) were to lease storage to the exporting national oil companies (NOCs) that supplied their markets, in line with the models established in Japan and Korea. Such arrangements would need to be backed up by intergovernmental agreements that covered pricing, the conditions under which stocks would be reserved for use in the importing country and, perhaps, the normal level of stocks. Depending on the terms of such agreements, the stocks would remain the property of the exporting NOC, which would be allowed to use them for normal commercial operations; but in times of emergency, the use of the stocks would be restricted to the country in which they were physically held. In the case of Korea, it appears that the Korea National Oil Corporation (KNOC) would have the right to buy the oil in storage tanks, presumably at market prices. Because such stocks would be filled from incremental domestic production and thus would not replace exports, the cost to the exporting country would simply be the cost of production. This would be an economically efficient method of adding liquidity to the markets and securing some continuity of income for exporters in the event of a major disruption. Singapore could protect its refineries ability to export if storage were leased to exporting NOCs. For its part, the Indian Strategic Petroleum Reserves Limited (ISPRL) might borrow oil from exporting NOCs. Industry/government agenda Intergovernmental action would be needed for the following: An agreement between the IEA and the Indian and Chinese governments on a consultation procedure that would quickly produce a statement of common policy in the event of a major disruption. Such an agreement would not depend on a wider structure for association or partnership, although it could, of course, form part of one. 7 Chatham House

9 Summary Bilateral agreements between some major exporting countries and importing countries to support arrangements for exporting NOCs to commit to secure markets by holding stocks in importing countries. Ticketing arrangements whereby one country made some of its stocks available to another country at times of emergency. At the national level, each country s industry and government would need the following (unless already covered in emergency preparedness plans): A mechanism for executive consultation and coordination at times of disruption; Policies on the relative allocations from government- and industry-owned stocks in the event of an emergency; Prior agreement on how supplies are to be allocated between the domestic market, product exporters and international bunkers; Prior agreement on the principles of passing through prices in countries where these are controlled; and A mechanism for implementing and controlling demand restraint if applicable. The possibility of introducing innovative mechanisms should be examined. For example, in countries with high levels of stocks, companies that suffer force majeure could have automatic access to part of those stocks through an option whereby oil companies could borrow oil or (as in Japan) negotiate a reduction in their compulsory stock obligation. This could alleviate shortages precisely for the company for which they were most severe. The fast-access stock transfers (FAST) described in Annex 2 below would be an example of such a mechanism. 8 Chatham House

10 2. Background The growing interdependence between the Middle East and Asia has shifted the focus of global oil security East of Suez, reaching beyond the OECD and related IEA oil security institutions. Trade One-third of the world s oil flows are consumed in Asia (North, East, Southeast and South Asia and Australasia). Half of the oil consumed in this region is supplied from the Middle East the bulk of it through the Strait of Hormuz. In 2012 Middle East oil exports were far more important to consumers in the Asia-Pacific region (satisfying 50% of total consumption) than to those in the US (12%), Europe (15%) or the rest of the world (1%). Moreover, the Asia-Pacific region was by far the most important market for Middle East oil exports, accounting for 75% of those exports in Table 1: Imports from the Middle East to Asia and other regions, 2012 Oil and NGL exports from the Middle East to: mbd % of total consumption % of total Middle East exports Asia Europe US Rest of world Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy The year 2012 was a turning point in oil flows between Asia, the Middle East and the rest of the world. While oil consumption in Asia grew, production did not. Before 2012, surpluses from the Middle East covered the Asian deficit and contributed to deficits in other oil-importing regions. Since then, the balance has changed, as Figure 2 shows. The important point to stress is that from now onwards, Middle East surpluses will not support the growing Asian deficit, which will increasingly have to be met by supplies from other parts of the world. The details may vary from forecast to forecast, but the trend is clear. Figure 2: Global oil balances, mbd Asia deficit South and Central America surplus Russia surplus Central Asia surplus Africa surplus Middle East surplus (F) 2020(F) Sources: BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2013, Joint Organisations Data Initiative (JODI): (historical data); EIA International Energy Outlook 2013 (reference case). 9 Chatham House

11 Background Global oil trade is more complex than the matching of surpluses and deficits: heavy oils from the Middle East are exported to refineries in the West and light oils are imported from the Atlantic basin to supply the demands of Asian refineries. If supplies from the Middle East were disrupted, Atlantic and Asian refiners would compete for the available surpluses of pivotal suppliers in West Africa, Latin America, northern Iraq, eastern Siberia and the Russian Far East. In 2012 the Asia-Pacific region imported approximately 20 mbd from outside the region, of which approximately 14.5 mbd came from the Middle East and 5.5 mbd from other parts of the world (including Russia, Kazakhstan and Angola). At the same time, 5 mbd was imported from the Middle East to the world outside the Asia-Pacific region (mainly the US, Europe and East and South Africa see Table 2). As Figure 2 shows, imports from the rest of the world to Asia will increase over the next 10 years or so. Table 2: Interregional trade, 2012 (mbd) To Asia-Pacific To rest of world Middle East exports Rest of world exports 5.5 Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy Strait of Hormuz The Strait of Hormuz links the Persian/Arab Gulf to the Gulf of Oman and the Indian Ocean. Map 1 shows the main export points for Middle East oil exports, with the pipelines that avoid the Strait of Hormuz. Map 1: Export routes avoiding the Straight of Hormuz TURKEY Ceyhan CYPRUS SYRIA Mediterranean Sea LEBANON ISRAEL Alexandria Port Said Cairo Suez EGYPT IRAQ JORDAN Yanbu Jeddah Mosul Arbil Baghdad Tabriz Basra Riyadh KUWAIT Isfahan Persian Gulf BAHRAIN Ras Tanura SAUDI ARABIA Caspian Sea Tehran QATAR Shiraz Habshan Abu Dhabi UAE IRAN Str. of Hormuz Mashhad Fujairah OMAN Gulf of Oman Muscat Red Sea SUDAN ERITREA Sana a YEMEN Arabian Sea ETHIOPIA DJIBOUTI Gulf of Aden Source: Author, based on US Energy Information Administration. 10 Chatham House

12 Background The Strait carries all the oil exports of Iran, Kuwait, Bahrain and Qatar and most of the exports of Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Iraq. At their peak, in 2011, these exports totalled 17 mbd. In 2012 almost 90% of Middle East oil exports passed through the Strait. The balance of Middle East exports (about 2 mbd) was probably exported to Europe from the Saudi port of Yanbu on the Red Sea, from northern Iraq to the Mediterranean and from Oman and Yemen to the Asia-Pacific region. There are no hard statistics to support these assumptions, which are summarized in Table 3. Table 3: Estimated direct exposure to Strait of Hormuz, 2012 Oil and NGL exports through mbd % of consumption Days of consumption % of total imports the Strait to: Asia-Pacific Europe <1 <1 1 1 US Rest of world < Total (world) Note: Total imports exclude Asian intra-regional trade. Sources: BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2013, JODI, author s estimates. Within Asia, dependence on the Strait of Hormuz varies considerably from country to country. In 2012 China was the least dependent of the major importers, as Table 4 shows. Table 4: Implied crude imports through the Strait of Hormuz, 2012 mbd % of consumption Asia-Pacific Japan India China Korea Singapore Thailand Indonesia Malaysia Australia <1 4 Other Asia Note: Total imports exclude Asian intra-regional trade. Sources: BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2013, JODI, author s estimates. Use of the Strait has diminished and will diminish even further as a result of: The completion of a 1.5 mbd export pipeline in the UAE to connect Habshan (onshore fields) to the port of Fujairah on the Gulf of Oman. Capacity can be increased to 1.8 mbd by using dragreducing agents. 1 In 2012 there were no significant exports from Fujairah, which at the time was being commissioned. 1 See (accessed on 29 October 2013). 11 Chatham House

13 Background The doubling of capacity (from 2 mbd to around 4 mbd) of pipelines connecting producing fields in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia to the Saudi port of Yanbu on the Red Sea. The sea route from Yanbu to the US or Europe is shorter than that from Saudi Gulf terminals by about 7,400 km. However, only about 2 mbd of capacity appears to have been used in 2012, probably because of lack of demand from Europe and the US (Saudi crude and product sales to the US and Europe totalled about 2.8 mbd). 2 LNG A restraint on shipping through the Strait which blocked 10 mbd (about 60% of of oil exports) would probably affect LNG exports from Qatar to Asia although the extent of the impact would depend on the precise nature of the disruption. Qatar supplied just over 10% of Asian gas consumption in Its LNG exports were concentrated on three countries: India, Korea and Japan, to which it supplied 29%, 28% and 18% of national gas consumption, respectively. There is no intraregional LNG trade (unlike the case of oil products); and uncertainty about Qatar s policy for allocating scarce supplies, combined with the logistics of obtaining alternative supplies, would be a source of major concern for these three countries. Continuity of LNG supply is more difficult to maintain than continuity of oil supply because of the need to keep constant pressure in the infrastructure network. Apart from practical difficulties, there is no IEA Emergency Response Mechanism (ERM) for gas. Moreover, the challenge of responding to an interruption of supplies from Qatar would fall to the governments and industries of the countries concerned and would be difficult to share. Trends The analysis above is based on 2012 data. As noted, in 2012 only 14.5 mbd of the Middle East surplus was exported to the Asia-Pacific region. The balance of the Asia-Pacific market was supplied from exporters elsewhere. The focus of this paper is oil security in the short and medium term that is, until It takes 2015 as a representative year. Projections by the principal agencies vary. The EIA International Energy Outlook 2013 reference case suggests the following: Production in the Middle East will fall, possibly by as much as 1 mbd around 2015, before recovering to its present level by This estimate is based on the assumption that OPEC producers will respond to new US crude supplies by reducing their production to support the price (although there are, of course, other possible scenarios). Consumption in the Middle East will continue to increase by about 1 mbd until 2015 (after which demand may decrease in response to Saudi and UAE policies to promote energy efficiency and alternative energy). 3 As a result, Middle East surpluses are set to decline by more than 2 mbd until 2015, after which they will return to their present level. In the Asia-Pacific region, production will be more or less flat, but consumption will rise by more than 2 mbd by 2015 and another 3 mbd by JODI and the 2012 Saudi Aramco annual report. 3 See Glada Lahn, Paul Stevens and Felix Preston, Burning Oil to Keep Cool: The Hidden Energy Crisis in Saudi Arabia and Saving Oil and Gas in the Gulf, Chatham House reports, Chatham House

14 Background Beyond 2015, oil consumption growth in exporting Middle East countries, combined with the slowdown in production growth, will lead to a fall in export revenues (unless prices rise proportionately) and therefore lower GDP and oil consumption. However, there are many uncertainties, including how quickly Iraq production expands and Iranian output returns to pre-sanctions levels, and to what extent Saudi and UAE policies to promote the efficient use of energy and develop renewable energy will restrain the growth of consumption. It is also uncertain whether Middle East exporters will choose to maintain the current level of supplies to their various markets as their export surpluses decline or whether they will prioritize maintaining the level of exports to the Asia-Pacific region in absolute terms (or even increase it) at the expense of exports to the rest of the world. In the medium term, and probably in the longer term as well, Asia-Pacific dependence on Middle East oil supplies is likely to decrease both in absolute terms and proportionately as imports from the rest of the world increase. Thus in the medium term, and probably in the longer term as well, Asia-Pacific dependence on Middle East oil supplies is likely to decrease both in absolute terms and proportionately as imports from the rest of the world increase. Table 5 below summarizes the baseline scenario in this paper on the assumption that Middle East oil exports to Asia will continue at their present level to Table 5: Oil balance trends for Asia Asia-Pacific consumption (mbd) Asia-Pacific production (mbd) Asia-Pacific deficit (mbd) Middle East surplus (mbd) Middle East exports to Asia-Pacific (mbd)/ with constant (73%) share of Middle East exports Middle East exports to Asia-Pacific (mbd)/with constant volume of exports Sources: 2012: JODI, BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2013; 2015 and 2020: JODI 2012 plus EIA International Energy Outlook 2013 for incremental volume for 2015 and Chatham House

15 3. Scenarios Baseline scenario Most Middle East exports to the Asian markets take place under long-term supply agreements (while prices are set by the open market). For this reason, there is a certain stability to the patterns of trade as well as to the assumptions used in one of the disruption scenarios below. For the purpose of this paper, we have analysed as far as possible from existing data the pattern of Middle East supply to Asian importing countries in From this pattern we have constructed a baseline scenario for 2015, whose assumptions differ from the reality in 2012 as follows: Asia-Pacific demand is increased by 2 mbd in line with the EIA s 2013 reference case projections. The Fujairah export terminal in Abu Dhabi, which was still under construction in 2012, is assumed to be fully utilized (capacity = 1.5 mbd). Exports from Yanbu are assumed to be at full capacity that is, 4 mbd, of which 1.2 mbd goes to Asia and the balance to the US and Europe (in proportion to their respective shares of Saudi exports in 2012). This volume exceeds 2012 utilization and implies that before the assumed disruption, uncertainty about the situation in the Strait of Hormuz was sufficient to increase the use of Yanbu. The effect in the baseline scenario is to reduce the dependence on Hormuz from 16 mbd in 2012 to 12 mbd. Figure 3 below shows the baseline scenario for 2015, which takes into account completion of facilities at Yanbu and Fujairah and continued supplies from Oman and Yemen on the Indian Ocean. Figure 3: The importance of Hormuz for exporters and importers Asian imports (22.7 mbd) Middle East exports (19.7 mbd) Via Hormuz to rest of worlld From rest of world 36% 43% From Middle East via Hormuz Other routes to rest of world 13% 13% 50% Via Hormuz to Asia 21% 24% From Middle East via other routes Other routes to Asia Source: Author s estimates. The Strait is more important for Middle East exporters (63% of baseline exports) than for Asian importers (43% of baseline imports). However, both groups have an interest in the continuity of supply through the Strait. 14 Chatham House

16 Scenarios Disruption scenarios At its narrowest point, the Strait is just 30 km wide, of which approximately 10 km are used by deepwater tankers in outward, inward and buffer lanes. Many events could lead to the blocking or part-blocking of the Strait: pollution, earthquake, terrorism, a deliberate act by a Gulf state or war between two or more of the Gulf states. Interruption of supplies through the Strait can serve as symbol for disruption in some exporting countries. For the purpose of this analysis, we have assumed a disruption of 10 mbd through the Strait of Hormuz for three months. This is an arbitrary volume (just over 10% of world consumption, 18% of interregional trade, 40% of imports to the Asia-Pacific region, half of Middle East exports): it is big enough to matter globally, not so large as to overwhelm the global system, but sufficiently large to be very disruptive for the Asia-Pacific region. In the disruptions that have taken place to date, supply began to recover within three months. 4 The speed of recovery depends on the nature of the disruption (production or transit), the remedies taken in the Gulf to restore supply, the effect of price increases on demand and the response of alternative suppliers. In this paper, we concentrate on the immediate effect (over three months). Compared with the baseline scenario, the 10 mbd disruption would leave an availability of up to 10 mbd from the Middle East, of which roughly 2.5 mbd would be residual supply through Hormuz, 5.5 mbd from Yanbu and Fujairah and 2 mbd from exporters not affected by the Hormuz disruption: Yemen and Oman as well as northern Iraq. The allocation of the oil that Saudi Aramco and the Abu Dhabi National Oil Company (ADNOC) would continue to export would have a major impact on availability for Asia-Pacific importers, both collectively and individually. We have analysed this impact on the basis of two scenarios (for full details, see Annex 1 below). Scenario 1: Sharing : Supplies through the Strait of Hormuz are reduced by 10 mbd. The remaining Middle East availability from the Strait of Hormuz and other export terminals is allocated to destinations in proportion to their share of Middle East supplies in the baseline scenario. This pro rata allocation would be more or less in line with the likely contractual obligations of exporters to treat their customers equally. It would not only apply to customers with long-term contracts but, under international commercial law, might also apply to normal trading patterns. Perhaps it could be argued that such a distribution of available oil supplies would result from an approach whereby governments cooperated to manage the supply crisis. Scenario 2: Looking after our own : Supplies through the Strait of Hormuz are reduced by 10 mbd. ADNOC prioritizes its exports from Fujairah in accordance with the country shares of total UAE exports in James D. Hamilton, Causes and Consequences of the Oil Shock of , Working Paper 15002, National Bureau of Economic Research, Chatham House

17 Scenarios Saudi Aramco prioritizes its export products from its export refineries (assumed to include the share of foreign oil company partners in the refineries (Mobil, Shell)) as well as the total crude requirements of its overseas refineries (including share of foreign partners (Shell, Sinopec, Exxon, Fujian Refining and Petrochemical). Both the remaining supplies from Yanbu and Saudi Aramco s share of the remaining supplies from Hormuz are allocated pro rata to Saudi third-party customers. This scenario is significantly more favourable for the US, Japan and Korea, where the exporting NOCs have refinery investments, than for India and Europe, where they do not. It is important to point out that importing countries cannot choose the scenario. The scenario that applied would be decided by the policy, practice and contractual obligations of Saudi Aramco and ADNOC. Analysis of the risk to Asia The main conclusion from comparing the two disruption scenarios is that Asia is less exposed under the looking after our own scenario. This is because two-thirds of Saudi Aramco s overseas refineries are in Asia, while the UAE has refinery investments in that region too. Thus in the looking after our own scenario, these refineries would receive a larger share of the available supplies from Yanbu and Fujiairah than they would under the pro rata allocations in the sharing scenario. The US would stand to benefit, too, because of the size of Saudi Aramco s US refinery interests relative to US imports from the Middle East. The loser is Europe; however, its exposure is quite small in both scenarios. The numbers given in Table 6 below cannot be taken as exact ones, but they do indicate strategic choices by Saudi Aramco and ADNOC that would favour Asia and reduce the impact of a large Hormuz disruption on Asian consumption and supplies from the Middle East. Table 6: Oil supply impact under two scenarios Sharing Looking after our own mbd % of consumption mbd % of consumption Asia excluding IEA Asia including IEA Europe US Rest of world Source: Annex 1. Within Asia, most Asian countries would be better off under the Looking after our own scenario. India would be the exception, because exporting NOCs have not invested in refineries in that country. This is illustrated in Figure Chatham House

18 Scenarios Figure 4: Potential losses of supply under the two scenarios mbd mbd Sharing 10 mbd Looking after our own Total Asia India Korea Singapore Japan Thailand China Source: Author s estimates. The exporters choice between sharing and looking after our own is important for both exporters and importers. Moreover, it is in the interests of both to reduce uncertainty about the choice itself: exporters would thereby clarify their commitment to existing customers and subsidiaries and importers would understand what a major disruption would mean for them. Such clarity could be achieved either through bilateral agreements creating advantages or through guarantees of mostfavoured-nation treatment. Products Product imports accounted for a large share of consumption and almost 30% of Asian consumption in 2012, and more in some countries, as Table 7 shows. 5 More than 80% (6 mbd) of these product supplies came from refineries in other parts of the region (more than 3 mbd from India, Korea and Singapore). The region s refineries, in turn, depend on the Middle East for nearly half of their crude supplies (see Table 9). Thus disruption to Middle East supplies through the Strait of Hormuz would affect not only crude supplies to the region s refiners but also product supplies from export refineries elsewhere in the region. Disruption to Middle East supplies through the Strait of Hormuz would affect not only crude supplies to the region s refiners but also product supplies from export refineries elsewhere in the region. In the event of a disruption, product-exporting companies would have to allocate supplies between domestic consumption, exports and, in some cases, international bunkering. Cutting exports in order to protect domestic consumption would prejudice the future of oil-dependent export businesses such as domestic refineries. Cutting supplies for international shipping and aviation would be immensely disruptive to trade and throw into doubt the reliability of the hub for servicing 5 JODI data for Chatham House

19 Scenarios international aviation and shipping. Thus consumers in product-importing countries would be affected by decisions taken in product-exporting countries, but product-exporting countries could significantly reduce the effect of a disruption of crude supplies on their own (domestic) consumers by banning or restricting product exports. Table 7: Dependence of selected countries on product imports, 2012 Volume of product imports (000 bd) Product imports as % of consumption Myanmar Sri Lanka Philippines Brunei Darussalam 7 48 Australia Indonesia New Zealand Japan China Source: JODI data for Central Bank of Sri Lanka, Economic and Social Statistics of Sri Lanka Singapore is an example of a country where this dilemma is particularly acute. In the baseline scenario, imports of crude and products totalling about 3 mbd (of which 1.1 mbd would probably be through Hormuz) supports exports and re-exports of about 1.9 mbd of products. 6 More than half of the products exported to Singapore are for supplies to international aviation and marine bunkers and about one-third is used as feedstock for the petrochemical export industry. Cutting supplies to the product-export, bunkering and petrochemical industries would have long-term negative consequences for their role in the Singaporean economy. Dependence on product imports therefore creates indirect exposure to Middle East oil supplies. Australia is an example of a country with such exposure in 2012 its net product imports totalled 0.3 mbd. 7 In fiscal year products imported by Australia from refineries in India, Korea and Singapore accounted for 38% of middle distillate demand, 19% of light distillate demand and 51% of fuel oil sales (whose volume was relatively small). 8 Petroleum products supplied 100% of the energy needed for aviation, 94% for road transport, 90% for agriculture, 37% for mining and 6% for construction. Disruption of product supplies to Australia from exporting refineries in Asia would have a big impact on the economic activity in all these sectors. Australia s own crude production (0.5 mbd in 2012) does not reduce its exposure to disruption, although the volume of crude exports is similar to that of product imports ( mbd). Australia s light sweet crude exports cannot be easily substituted for imports of Middle East heavier crudes, even if the required refining capacity were available (only about 100,000 bd of capacity is used to refine Middle East crude; and in the event of a disruption of supplies, less than that would be spare following the conversion of two refineries into import terminals). Moreover, since Australia s crude exports would not be disrupted, it would require strong government intervention to divert them from contractual destinations. 6 Precise numbers are difficult to obtain. Published statistics do not show the distribution of exports by country. 7 JODI. 8 Australian Petroleum Statistics: Bureau of Resources and Energy Economics. 18 Chatham House

20 Scenarios Table 8 below shows the source of supply of refined products to Asia-Pacific consumer countries. Although 93% of these supplies come from refineries in the region, only 70% come from refineries in the consumer country; the remaining 22% come from refineries in other parts of the region and 7% from Middle East export refineries. Table 8: Product supply to Asia-Pacific consumer countries, 2012 mbd % of total Product consumption Product imports from outside the region (mainly Middle East) 2 7 Products imported from refineries elsewhere in the region 6 21 Products from refineries in the consumer country Total from Asia-Pacific refineries Sources: JODI, BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2013, official national data. The indirect dependence of Asia-Pacific refineries on Middle East crude supplies is shown in Table 9 below. Almost 70% of the production of Asia-Pacific refineries depends on crude imported from outside the region, of which 40% is from Middle East supplies; moreover, about 90% of these Middle East supplies pass through the Strait of Hormuz (as discussed above). Table 9: Implied sources of crude inputs to Asia-Pacific refineries, 2012 mbd % of total Total inputs National crude production 7 27 Imports of other Asia-Pacific crude 1 3 Crude imported from outside the region Of which: from the Middle East Sources: JODI, BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2013, official national data. The refineries of India, Korea and Singapore make the biggest contribution (over 4 mbd) to the 6 mbd of product exports within the region. Each country exported more than 1 mbd in 2012, while Singapore (a trading hub, as noted above) was also a significant product importer. Table 10 and Figure 5 suggest that more than half (2.5 mbd) of the product exports from these countries refineries within the region may be dependent on supplies from the Middle East. Table 10: Product exports dependent on Middle East supplies, 2012 Product exports (mbd) Middle East share of refinery inputs (%) Implied Middle East dependence of product exports (mbd) Product imports (mbd) Net product exports (mbd) India Korea Singapore Note: Data for Singapore are from 2011: exports include re-exports; consumption includes bunkers; and product imports include 0.3 mbd from outside the Asia-Pacific region mainly the Middle East. Sources: JODI, BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2013, official national data. 19 Chatham House

21 Scenarios Figure 5: Dependence of regional product exports on Middle East crude mbd Product exports (mbd) Implied Middle East dependence India Korea Singapore Source: Author s estimates. Determining what proportion of product exports depends on imported crude and the pattern of product trade is difficult without data. Moreover, trade may fluctuate. However, if we assume that 50% of the product exports from Asian refineries depend on Middle East crude, the aggregate dependence of various product-importing countries is higher than indicated by their crude imports from the Middle East alone (see Table 11 below). Table 11: Effect of indirect dependence on the Middle East, 2012 Direct imports from the Middle East (mbd) 50% of imports of products from refiners dependent on Middle East crude (mbd) Total dependence (mbd) Total dependence as % of consumption Of which products (%) China Japan Thailand Australia Sources: JODI, BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2013, official national data. The importing countries in Table 11 have an interest in the security of crude supply to the refineries elsewhere in the region that supply them with products. It would be reasonable for companies and governments of product-importing countries to seek advance assurances from companies and governments of the product-exporting countries that the latter would continue to support product exports. 20 Chatham House

22 4. Macroeconomic Effect Because of the nature of global interregional trade (see Table 2 above), the impact of shortages in the Asia-Pacific region would be felt worldwide and would affect oil prices everywhere. While new supply patterns were developing, prices could vary from region to region to reflect local shortages and surpluses (such as might result from the release of stocks in the US and Europe, which would be least affected by interruptions in the Strait of Hormuz). This paper does not speculate on how long oil supplies would be disrupted, the effect on prices or what a new business as usual situation might be. However, a three-month period of disruption and the associated price increases would harm importers economies in three ways: The interruption in supplies would disrupt the functioning of the domestic economy; The increase in international oil prices would be reflected in domestic prices in general and hence inflation; and Efforts would have to be made to boost exports in order to meet the higher cost of oil imports. The Monetary Authority of Singapore has estimated that the inflationary effect in Singapore of a long-term oil price increase of 10% would be 0.2 percentage points in the first year and another 0.5 percentage points in the second year as higher costs were passed on to consumers (an oil price increase of shorter duration would have less impact). In an economy less open than Singapore s, the pass-through could be muted by price controls but at the cost of higher direct or indirect government subsidies. Moreover, inflationary effects depend to some extent on the monetary-policy response. If this response were not coordinated with that of other major oil-importing countries, there would be an exchange-rate effect besides that of the oil price increase on the balance of payments. The impact of an oil price increase on the balance of payments would be proportional to the volume of oil imports. The balance-of-payments effect would be immediate: imports would have to be paid for even as the economy was adjusting to higher prices. Currency market expectations would affect the exchange rate too. There would be effects on government finances, economic growth, employment and inflation. The scale of the impact would depend on the extent of the disruption, the size of the price increase triggered by the disruption, and the policy responses to the increase in the importing country and its trading partners. The length of the disruption would be another critical factor: obviously, a short disruption would have a much smaller impact than a prolonged disruption of uncertain length. Previous price shocks, though all sparked by relatively short-term disruptions of supply, had very different impacts on price. The price shocks of 1973 and 1978 led to a large permanent change in the price level that occurred over one year, whereas the shocks of 1980 and 1990 resulted in relatively short-term price increases over a period of four to six months followed by periods of stability or decline. 9 For some countries (including India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Thailand), the IMFs 2013 consultations and country reports show that economic growth would be at significant risk from a global oil price shock (that is, an increase to $ per barrel) and the potential policy responses to it. For other countries (such as Indonesia), the effect of an oil price shock depends on the impact on China, the principal market for non-oil exports. 9 Hamilton, Causes and Consequences of the Oil Shock. 21 Chatham House