Planeamento e Gestão da Mobilidade Urbana. Sessão 3:

Transcription

1 Mestrado em Ordenamento do Território e Urbanismo Planeamento e Gestão da Mobilidade Urbana João de Abreu e Silva Sessão 3: - Organização e Custos do Sistema de Transportes (agradecimentos: Prof Rosário Macário pelos slides desta aula) Instituto Superior Técnico / Mestrado em Ordenamento do Território e Urbanismo 1

2 Basic attributes in costs Variability: Influenced by traffic intensity? Up to what extent? Temporal Dimension: Occur immediately or differed? Financial relevancy: Based in current expenses, past or futures or descriptors of a non selected opportunity? Potential of fiscal impact: May result in real expenses? Economic relevancy (price): Relevant for price definition (marginal, averages, Ramsey, etc)? Instituto Superior Técnico / Mestrado em Ordenamento do Território e Urbanismo 2

3 Systematization of real social cost Cost function : Based in consumption of resources or in social cost coverage (transfers/user contributions)? Who bears the costs: the ones who generate (private cost) or others (social cost)? Degree of externality: Which part of the costs is covered? (directly or indirectly through transfers (internal cost) and which parts is not covered (external cost)? Sustainability: The development of the resources social costs is reflected in user contributions Instituto Superior Técnico / Mestrado em Ordenamento do Território e Urbanismo 3

4 Types of costs (I) Costs of resources + Transfers = Real Costs Cost generation and support: Private Costs and Social Costs Social Costs Internalization Instituto Superior Técnico / Mestrado em Ordenamento do Território e Urbanismo 4

5 Types of costs (II) Fixed and Variable Costs Threshold adopted in definition Marginal Costs Difficult to calculate (use of average variable costs) Costs, expenditures and opportunity costs Variability of costs - Examples Progressive variable costs (Con gestion) Pr oportional variable costs (VAC, emissio ns) Regressive var iable c osts (noise) Fixed costs (infrastructure, natu re & lan dsca pe) Traffic de mand Instituto Superior Técnico / Mestrado em Ordenamento do Território e Urbanismo 5

6 Cost categories Costs associated with: infrastructure supply vehicle operation traffic congestion road accidents air pollutant emissions traffic noise other effects (climate, urban barriers, landscape, etc) Although there are many questions on some of these categories in respect to their impact levels and their economic valuation, ignoring their existence corresponds to admitting with certainty (??) that their value is zero. Instituto Superior Técnico / Mestrado em Ordenamento do Território e Urbanismo 6

7 Cost categories and their attributes Cost Category Main Determinants Most Relevant Final Payers Degree of Externality Costs due to Size, technology and age of Different state levels and private Partly covered by user charges and infrastructure supply transport networks, share of heavy investors partly earmarked vehicle-related Costs related to vehicle operation Costs of traffic congestion Costs of traffic accidents Costs due to emissions into the air Costs due to traffic noise Other transportrelated effects traffic, maintenance policy. Density of P.T. provision Composition of vehicle fleet and traffic management sophistication, maintenance policy. Infrastructure capacity, traffic demand structure, traffic management. Driver s behaviour, safety measures, traffic control. Vehicle technology, energy mix, share of heavy traffic. Traffic volume and mix, settlement structure and land use. Traffic network, environmental structure, energy mix, etc. User in individual public transport frequently with strong contribution from taxpayer in public transport. Transport users occupying the same infrastructure. Municipality, health system, economy and victims. Health system, land owners and affected inhabitants. Land owners and directly affected inhabitants. General society, depending on effect taxes. Totally internal in individual transport, partly covered by fares in public transport. (in some countries commuting costs can be deducted in income taxation in which case it can not be considered as fully paid for) Internal to the transport sector. Covered by user charges or via other users time losses. Partly covered by liability insurance payments. Possibly covered by emission-related fuel or vehicle taxes Usually totally external. Usually totally external. Instituto Superior Técnico / Mestrado em Ordenamento do Território e Urbanismo 7

8 Infrastructure Definition: Capital cost, current expenditure. Structure, pavements and associated assets administration. Estimated based on accounts and national/local inventory. Attributes: Mostly fixed / partially opportunity costs due to high implementation costs and long asset life. Current expenditures of roads are almost exclusively generated by heavy goods vehicles Relevance : High relevance for funding and price setting. Internalization of costs optimized by the use of two-part fares due to high fixed costs. Instituto Superior Técnico / Mestrado em Ordenamento do Território e Urbanismo 8

9 Vehicles Definition: Costs of capital, operation costs, user time, transfers, in public and private transport, plus fleet administration costs for public transport. Evaluation from company accounts and public statistics. Attributes: Cost of private resources in private transport/ general budget and social cost of public transport. Mostly variable financial costs. Relevance : Social cost associated with vehicles (Public Transport) is very relevant for funding and determining cost coverage ratio, through analysis of user contribution. Instituto Superior Técnico / Mestrado em Ordenamento do Território e Urbanismo 9

10 Congestion Definition: Additional costs that actors impose on each other when they use the same scarce infrastructure. Calculated by comparing the total cost for the user in the current situation with a reference situation or applying social welfare theory and calculating dead-weight-losses. Attributes: Congestion costs are fully variable opportunity costs that are external to the transport user, but internal to the transport sector as a whole. Relevance: Price, and because of that they can facilitate funding problems. Must take public acceptability into consideration Instituto Superior Técnico / Mestrado em Ordenamento do Território e Urbanismo 10

11 Relationship between traffic, user costs and social marginal cost of congestion Source: FISCUS Instituto Superior Técnico / Mestrado em Ordenamento do Território e Urbanismo 11

12 Road accidents Definition: Includes social costs of damages, administrative costs of justice and police, medical assistance costs, substitution and reintegration, production losses and the ethical value of the loss of human life. Attributes: Fully variable social costs, partially internalized by responsibility and insurance. The main component the value of human life is a totally external opportunity cost. Relevance: Partially relevant for funding (municipalities). The optimization of their internalization is made through the implementation of safety measures and variable insurance premiums. Instituto Superior Técnico / Mestrado em Ordenamento do Território e Urbanismo 12

13 Emissions Definition: Costs of the effects on health and property, specific local effects and climate change due to ozone gas emission. Attributes: Fully variable social cost, especially the opportunity costs. Depends on technological evolution, climate change and driving habits. Relevance: Adequate internalization of global warming costs through fuel tax, which is why they are relevant for costs. Other effects should be internalized through incentives for the improvement of technical standards and driver behavior. Instituto Superior Técnico / Mestrado em Ordenamento do Território e Urbanismo 13

14 Noise Definition: Noise above of a certain level of exposure (target level) and for a long period of time may cause substantial physical and psychological damage. It is usually accounted for through the willingness to pay of affected residents for quieter leisure and work areas. Attributes: The costs of noise are fully variable opportunity costs. Noise is a local phenomenon that depends on traffic levels and the susceptibility of the affected area. Relevance : Not relevant for funding Instituto Superior Técnico / Mestrado em Ordenamento do Território e Urbanismo 14

15 Other external costs Composition: Costs of the deterioration of nature and landscape, water and soil pollution, additional effects on energy production, availability of bike space, barriers, urban environment. Determination of costs using substitution methods. Attributes: Partially variable opportunity costs. Relevance: Of little importance for price and funding. More relevant for the quantification of the effects of improvement measures. Instituto Superior Técnico / Mestrado em Ordenamento do Território e Urbanismo 15

16 Urban Mobility Funding Possibilities Instituto Superior Técnico / Mestrado em Ordenamento do Território e Urbanismo 16

17 Channel diversity Funding and financing are two different concepts: Funding, a process of ensuring the cost coverage for a project (investment and current expenditure) from one or more sources Financing, as leverage to launch a project Here we address mainly the first concept. Only private participation in investment has the second meaning. Addressing it more thoroughly would require a detailed analysis of risk and revenue sharing, which would go beyond the time and complexity confines of this course. Instituto Superior Técnico / Mestrado em Ordenamento do Território e Urbanismo 17

18 Price and funding alternatives (I) Categories User contribution Measures analysed within project FISCUS - Public transport fare structure - Tolls: Urban toll ring Area wide congestion pricing Distance-based Time- or congestion-based - Paid parking - Circulation taxes - Vehicle acquisition taxes - Other taxes and licenses on vehicles, fuel, etc. Instituto Superior Técnico / Mestrado em Ordenamento do Território e Urbanismo 18

19 Price and funding alternatives (II) Categories State budget Measures analysed within project FISCUS - Specific transport budget - General budget Public companies contribution Benefitiary contribution - Cross funding from other utilities - Value capture through operator revenues - Value capture through taxes Private sources - Private loans - Public-private partnerships - Equity Instituto Superior Técnico / Mestrado em Ordenamento do Território e Urbanismo 19

20 User funding direct benefits (utility) pt-passengers, car drivers infrastructure construction costs, infrastructure maintainance costs, operation costs USER CONTRIBUTIONS (pt-fares, road- and parking-pri cing, taxes closely related to the amount of use) incentives to reduce, coverage of avoidance Source: FISCUS external costs Instituto Superior Técnico / Mestrado em Ordenamento do Território e Urbanismo 20

21 State budget funding society ("normal" taxpayers, authorities) external benefits (mainly avoidance of external costs) PUBLIC BUDGET SUBSIDIES TAXATION (behavior effects) pt-passengers, car drivers TAXATION (behavior effects) infrastructure construction costs, infrastructure maintenance costs, operation costs external costs private investors, pt-operators Source: FISCUS cost bearing, coverage of avoidance Instituto Superior Técnico / Mestrado em Ordenamento do Território e Urbanismo 21

22 Value capture funding third-partybeneficiaries or voluntary VALUE CAPTURE by taxes external benefits ("values") Source: FISCUS infrastructure construction costs, infrastructure maintenance costs, operation costs Instituto Superior Técnico / Mestrado em Ordenamento do Território e Urbanismo 22

23 Cross funding infrastructure construction costs, infrastructure maintenance costs, operation costs CROSS FUNDING (from freight transport or from outside transport market) Source: FISCUS surplus from other markets private investors, pt-operators Instituto Superior Técnico / Mestrado em Ordenamento do Território e Urbanismo 23

24 Private funding infrastructure construction costs, infrastructure maintainance costs, operation costs PRIVATE FUND ING CAPITAL SERVICE, PROFITS or DIREC T BENEFITS able to promote diversification activities Source: FISCUS private investors, pt-operators Instituto Superior Técnico / Mestrado em Ordenamento do Território e Urbanismo 24

25 third-partybeneficiaries pt-passengers, car drivers value capture direct benefits indirect benefits taxation (behavior effects) society ("normal" taxpayers, authorities) public budget subsidies infrastructure construction costs, infrastructure maintainance costs, operation costs taxation (behavior effects) Flow of all resources user contributions (pt-fares, road- and parking-pricing, taxes closely related to the amount of use) external costs incentives to reduce, coverage of avoidance capital service, profits or direct benefits able to promote diversification activities surplus from other markets outside transport market) private funding & cross funding cross funding (from freight transport or from private investors pt-operators cost bearing, coverage of avoidance Source: FISCUS Instituto Superior Técnico / Mestrado em Ordenamento do Território e Urbanismo 25

26 Evaluation of funding schemes It is necessary to evaluate the funding solutions on four levels, to identify a preference order 1st level (political-economic) socio-economic effects related with economic efficiency (consumption and production), cost coverage for public expenditure and distribution effects. 2nd level (territorial / institutional) effects related with potential conflicts between political-administrative bodies, with the division of power, in situations requiring coordination 3rd level (stakeholders) social acceptability of the effects; positive and/or negative effects on directly or indirectly affected groups 4th level (practical feasibility) - effects on implementation: legal, regulatory, technical and managerial issues related with the implementation process Instituto Superior Técnico / Mestrado em Ordenamento do Território e Urbanismo 26