REVIEW OF THE ECONOMIC IMPACT OF TAX REFORM ON CONSUMERS NOVEMBER Commissioned by

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1 REVIEW OF THE ECONOMIC IMPACT OF TAX REFORM ON CONSUMERS NOVEMBER 2015 Commissioned by

2 This report, based on the analysis prepared by Robert Carroll and Brandon Pizzola of the Quantitative Economics & Statistics (QUEST) group within Ernst & Young LLP, summarizes recent research on the macroeconomic impacts of tax reform. The report emphasizes estimated impacts on consumers and workers as potential beneficiaries of tax reform in the United States because of the likely increases in consumer spending, wages, and employment. The estimated impacts presented are scaled to the 2014 U.S. economy. NRF is the world s largest retail trade association, representing discount and department stores, home goods and specialty stores, Main Street merchants, grocers, wholesalers, chain restaurants and Internet retailers from the United States and more than 45 countries. Retail is the nation s largest private sector employer, supporting one in four U.S. jobs 42 million working Americans. Contributing $2.6 trillion to annual GDP, retail is a daily barometer for the nation s economy. NRF s This is Retail campaign highlights the industry s opportunities for life-long careers, how retailers strengthen communities, and the critical role that retail plays in driving innovation. i

3 Executive Summary Consumer spending plays a vital role in the U.S. economy, comprising roughly two-thirds of GDP. It also can serve as one measure of living standards as it captures the actual value of food, housing, transportation, apparel, healthcare, entertainment and other goods and services that consumers purchase. Because it is such a major component of the economy, policy decisions with implications for economic growth can translate into significant changes in consumption. Through its impact on economic growth, tax policy can have notable effects on the economy. Policies that dampen growth may also adversely affect consumer spending. This report examines the potential impact on consumers and the overall economy of: (1) inaction on tax reform in the United States over the past several decades, and (2) the potential economic benefits that could arise from reform of the U.S. tax system. While tax reform nearly three decades ago set the U.S. corporate income tax (CIT) rate below the average CIT rate among other developed countries, the combination of a largely unchanged U.S. rate and the trend of rate reductions among other developed countries since that reform have resulted in the United States having the highest CIT rate among major developed countries. The relatively high U.S. rate 11.1 percentage points above the weighted average of the top 30 world economies (excluding the United States) has been found to discourage U.S. investment and U.S. capital accumulation and, ultimately, to reduce labor productivity and living standards in the United States. The cost of CIT rate reductions abroad to the U.S. economy, while the U.S. rate remained largely unchanged, was estimated in a 2013 report prepared for the Reforming America s Taxes Equitably (RATE) Coalition: Current U.S. GDP was estimated to be 1.5% lower. This is equivalent to a decline of $3,200 per family. U.S. GDP was estimated to be 2.0% lower ($4,400 per family each year) in the long term. Current U.S. consumption was estimated to be 2.0% lower ($3,000 per family). In the long term, U.S. consumption was estimated to be 2.8% lower ($4,200 per family each year). Current U.S. wages were estimated to be 0.2% lower ($150 per worker). In the long term, wages were projected to be 1.1% lower ($700 per worker each year). Figure ES1. The cost of inaction: The impact of lower corporate income tax rates enacted abroad since 1988 on the U.S. economy (annual impacts) GDP per family -1.5% (-$3,200) -2.0% (-$4,400) Consumption per family -2.0% (-$3,000) -2.8% (-$4,200) Wages per worker -0.2% (-$150) -1.1% (-$700) Current impact Long-run impact Note: All economic impacts are scaled relative to the 2014 U.S. economy. There is assumed to be four people per family. Central estimates across analyses examined are presented. The long-run refers to when the economy has fully adjusted. Models of this type typically find that two-thirds to three-quarters of the long-run change in GDP is attained within 10 years. ii

4 Macroeconomic estimates of a recent tax reform plan the Tax Reform Act of 2014 as proposed by former House Ways and Means Committee Chairman Dave Camp, R-Mich. (the Camp tax plan ) indicate that reform of the U.S. federal income tax has the potential to provide significant benefits to U.S. consumers and workers. The Camp tax plan is notable as a base-broadening, rate-reducing tax reform. This approach eliminates or scales back special tax provisions to pay for lower tax rates. Other tax reform plans of this type have been put forward by both the Administration and prominent members of Congress. Estimates of the Camp tax plan s impact on consumers and the overall economy are generally indicative of what a basebroadening, rate-reducing tax reform could realistically be expected to achieve. The central estimates across the analyses examined suggest: GDP would be 0.8% higher in the first five years ($1,800 per family each year) and 1.0% higher in the second five years ($2,200 per family each year). Consumption would be 1.1% higher in the first five years ($1,600 per family each year) and 1.5% higher in the second five years ($2,200 per family each year). Employment would be 0.6% higher in the first five years (0.9 million jobs) and 0.9% higher in the second five years (1.3 million jobs). That is, the number of jobs in the U.S. economy would be, on average, 0.9 million higher in each of the first five years growing to 1.3 million in the second five years relative to the number of jobs each year absent the Camp tax plan. While these estimates suggest that inaction in the United States is already having real economic consequences, they also suggest the potential upside of tax reform. Prominent macroeconomic analyses have found that a base-broadening, rate-reducing reform can have both immediate and long-term positive impacts for U.S. consumers and workers through increased GDP, consumer spending, employment and wages. Figure ES2. Benefits of rate reduction to the U.S. economy: The Tax Reform Act of 2014 (annual impact) GDP per family 0.8% ($1,800) 1.0% ($2,200) Consumption per family 1.1% ($1,600) 1.5% ($2,200) Total employment 0.6% (0.9 million) 0.9% (1.3 million) First five years Second five years *Employment is a stock whereas GDP and consumption are flows. This implies, for example, that the 0.6% annual increase in employment over the first five years means that the number of jobs in the economy would be, on average, 0.9 million higher in each of the first five years relative to the number of jobs each year absent the Camp tax plan. Note: All economic impacts are scaled relative to the 2014 U.S. economy. There is assumed to be four people per family. Central estimates across analyses examined are presented. The long-run refers to when the economy has fully adjusted. Models of this type typically find that two-thirds to three-quarters of the long-run change in GDP is attained within 10 years. iii

5 Table of Contents CONTENTS PAGE I. Introduction 1 II. The cost of doing nothing 2 III. The benefits of a lower corporate income tax rate 5 IV. Limitations and caveats 7 V. Summary 8 Endnotes 9 iv

6 Review of the economic impact of tax reform on consumers I. Introduction Consumer spending plays a vital role in the U.S. economy, comprising roughly two-thirds of GDP. It also serves as a measure for the standard of living as it captures the actual value of food, housing, transportation, apparel, healthcare, entertainment and other goods and services that consumers purchase and enjoy. Because it is such a major component of the economy, policy decisions with implications for economic growth can translate into significant changes in consumption. One notable policy area of concern is the current U.S. tax system, aspects of which may lower consumer spending by depressing economic growth. There is broad agreement that the U.S. corporate income tax (CIT) is in need of reform. The U.S. CIT rate, always high relative to other industrialized countries, became the highest among the 30 largest economies in In response, the Administration and prominent members of Congress have put forth tax reform plans to significantly reduce the CIT rate. These tax reform plans often follow the traditional formula of eliminating or scaling back special tax provisions to fund lower tax rates, which was the formula used in the Tax Reform Act of 1986 (TRA86) the last major U.S. tax reform. Such a reform can have immediate and long-term positive impacts for consumers through increased GDP, consumer spending, employment and wages. Moreover, inaction has a cost: Although the U.S. CIT rate has remained largely unchanged over nearly the past three decades, the lower CIT rates enacted abroad have likely had an adverse impact on the economy and consumers in the United States. This report summarizes findings from prominent analyses that have examined the impact of inaction on tax reform over the past several decades and the potential economic benefits that could arise from tax reform in the United States. This examination focuses on the potential impacts for consumers in both the near and long term. 1

7 II. The cost of doing nothing Although TRA86 reduced the U.S. statutory CIT rate to somewhat below the average rate among other developed countries, CIT rates abroad have since declined while the U.S. statutory CIT rate has remained largely unchanged (Figure 1). As a result, the United States now has the highest statutory CIT rate of the top 30 world economies, and countries such as Japan are in the process of lowering their rates even further. Figure 1. Statutory corporate income tax rates in the United States and the Rest of World, % Statutory corporate income tax rate 45% 40% 35% 30% United States Rest of World 25% Notes: The average statutory corporate income tax rate for the rest of world is weighted by the GDP of the 18 countries included in a 2013 EY report prepared for the Reforming America s Taxes Equitably (RATE) Coalition: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and United Kingdom. To increase the comparability of corporate income tax rates across countries, both national and subnational corporate income taxes are included. This is important to capture the differing degree to which a country s corporate income tax rate is applied at the national versus subnational level. In the United States the top federal corporate income tax rate is 35%. Source: EY Worldwide Corporate Tax Guide; OECD. 2

8 As shown in Figure 2, the United States statutory CIT rate of 39.0%, including both the federal and the average state CIT rate, is 11.1 percentage points higher than the GDP-weighted average (excluding the United States) CIT rate across the top 30 world economies. 1 Figure 2. Corporate income tax rates in the top 30 world economies by GDP, % 40% 35% 30% 25% GDP-weighted average (excl. U.S.): 27.9% Simple average (excl. U.S.): 25.8% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% United Arab Emirates Taiwan Province of China Poland Saudi Arabia Thailand Turkey Russia United Kingdom Switzerland Sweden Korea Austria Netherlands Indonesia China Canada Taiwan Mexico Spain Australia Nigeria Germany Italy Belgium India Brazil Argentina Japan France United States Note: To increase the comparability of corporate income tax rates across countries, both national and subnational corporate income taxes are included. This is important to capture the differing degree to which a country s corporate income tax rate is applied at the national versus subnational level. In the United States the top federal corporate income tax rate is 35%. Source: EY Worldwide Corporate Tax Guide; OECD; GDP weighting reflects 2013 GDP estimates from the IMF. Inaction has consequences for both U.S. consumers and the overall U.S. economy. As other countries have reduced their CIT rates, the United States has become the highest CIT rate country. The high U.S. statutory CIT rate may adversely affect investment and capital accumulation and ultimately reduce labor productivity and living standards in the United States. The cost to the economy of CIT rate reductions abroad, in conjunction with little change to the U.S. CIT rate, was estimated in a 2013 report prepared for the Reforming America s Taxes Equitably (RATE) Coalition. 2 In particular, the report estimated the impact on consumers and the overall economy of the enactment of lower CIT rates abroad since TRA86. 3 The report used a variety of model specifications, but each led to broadly similar results: Each of the three key metrics of consumer welfare (GDP, consumption and wages) was estimated to decrease significantly. 4 3

9 Specifically, current GDP was estimated to be approximately 1.0% to 2.0% lower than it would be otherwise. This is equivalent to a decline of approximately $500 to $1,100 in GDP per person. The report estimated that after the U.S. economy fully adjusts to foreign rate reductions (i.e., the long run), the GDP reduction would be 1.3% to 2.7%, or roughly $700 to $1,500 lower per person each year. Note that these economic impacts and all economic impacts throughout this report are scaled to the 2014 U.S. economy. The decline in consumption is even more pronounced. Because of a largely unchanged U.S. CIT rate since TRA86, current consumption is estimated to be 1.6% to 2.3% lower than it would be otherwise. This means consumption could be $600 to $900 per person lower than it otherwise would be. Put differently, the current consumption of a family of four in the United States was estimated to be $2,400 to $3,600 lower because of the failure of the United States to keep pace with the reductions in CIT rates abroad. Consumption is estimated to decline even further, by 2.1% to 3.4% ($250 billion to $400 billion per year), in the long run. On a per capita basis, long-run consumption would be $800 to $1,300 lower each year than if the U.S. CIT were reduced in line with changes abroad; on a per family basis the reduction would be a decrease of $3,200 to $5,200 annually. Wages are also estimated to be somewhat lower: up to 0.3% ($0 to $200 per worker) now and significantly lower in the long run. This is because labor productivity is estimated to fall as the economy becomes less capital intensive over time due to the relative change in the CIT rate in the United States versus that in other developed countries. This translates into lower real wages for workers. While modest in the short run, wages are estimated to decline by between 0.9% and 1.2% ($600 to $800 per worker each year) after the economy fully adjusts to reductions in foreign CIT rates (i.e., the long run). 5 Table 1. Impact of lower corporate income tax rates enacted abroad since 1988 on the U.S. economy Current impact Long-run impact Gross domestic product Central estimate -1.5% -2.0% Reforming America's Taxes Equitability Coalition -1.0% to -2.0% -1.3% to -2.7% Consumption Central estimate -2.0% -2.8% Reforming America's Taxes Equitability Coalition -1.6% to -2.3% -2.1% to -3.4% Wages Central estimate -0.2% -1.1% Reforming America's Taxes Equitability Coalition 0.0% to -0.3% -0.9% to -1.2% Note: Central estimate is the midpoint of the estimated range. The long-run refers to when the economy has fully adjusted. Models of this type typically find that two-thirds to three-quarters of the long-run change in GDP is attained within 10 years. Source: Robert Carroll, John Diamond and George Zodrow, Macroeconomic effects of lower corporate income tax rates recently enacted abroad, an EY report prepared for the Reforming America s Taxes Equitably (RATE) Coalition, March

10 III. The benefits of a lower corporate income tax rate Macroeconomic estimates of a recent tax reform plan the Tax Reform Act of 2014 as proposed by former House Ways and Means Committee Chairman Dave Camp, R-Mich., (the Camp tax plan ) indicate that reform of the U.S. federal income tax has the potential to provide significant benefits to consumers and workers. The Camp tax plan, like many other reform plans, is notable as a base-broadening, rate-reducing tax reform for which we have macroeconomic analysis. The Camp tax plan would reduce the top federal CIT rate from 35% to 25% and the top individual tax rate from 39.6% to 35%. Similar to other recent tax reform plans, the Camp tax plan was designed to be revenue neutral, meaning it would not add to the deficit. And like others, it would pay for lower income tax rates by limiting or altogether eliminating various tax expenditures. 6 The macroeconomic impacts of the Camp tax plan were estimated in studies from the Joint Committee on Taxation (JCT) and the Business Roundtable (BRT). 7 The macroeconomic analysis by the JCT relied on two different models, an overlapping generations model (OLG) and the Macroeconomic Equilibrium Growth (MEG) model. The BRT study relied just on an OLG model similar to that used by the JCT. Although the analyses provide a sizable range of results due to varying models and modeling assumptions, all of the estimates indicate that the Camp tax plan would benefit U.S. consumers and workers through higher GDP, consumption and employment in both the near and long term. 8 Across the three economic models, the central estimate suggests that GDP would be 0.8% higher in the first five years ($450 per person each year) and 1.0% higher in the second five years ($550 per person each year) following enactment of the reform. The positive impact on consumption was estimated to be slightly larger. The central estimate across the models is a 1.1% increase in consumption in the first five years ($400 per person each year) and a 1.5% increase in the second five years ($550 per person each year). Put differently, the Camp tax plan was estimated to increase consumption by enough for a family of four to consume an average additional $1,600 of goods and services during each of the first five years and an average additional $2,200 of goods and services during each of the second five years. Finally, the central estimate of employment was reported to be a 0.6% increase in the first five years of the Camp tax plan (0.9 million jobs) and 0.9% increase in the second five years (1.3 million jobs). That is, the number of jobs in the U.S. economy would be, on average, 0.9 million higher in each of the first five years growing to 1.3 million in the second five years relative to the number of jobs each year absent the Camp tax plan. Only the BRT study reported the impacts of the Camp tax plan on U.S. consumers and the overall U.S. economy after the economy fully transitioned (i.e., in the long run). The longrun impacts estimated in the BRT study were reported to be almost twice as large as the estimated impact over the second five years for both GDP (a 3.1% long-run increase relative to a 1.7% increase in the second five years) and consumption (a 4.0% long-run increase relative to a 2.3% increase in the second five years). In contrast, the BRT study estimated that in the long run, employment gains would decline to 0.3% from their high of 0.4% over the second five years post-enactment. This slight falloff in the increase in employment under the Camp tax plan arises from the substitution of capital for labor as the capital intensity of the economy increases over time. 5

11 Table 2. Benefits of rate reduction to the U.S. economy: The Tax Reform Act of 2014 First five years Second five years Long-run impact Gross domestic product Central estimate 0.8% 1.0% * Business Roundtable 0.9% 1.7% 3.1% Joint Committee on Taxation (MEG) 0.1% to 0.3% 0.1% to 0.8% * Joint Committee on Taxation (OLG) 1.8% to 1.8% 1.4% to 1.4% * Consumption Central estimate 1.1% 1.5% * Business Roundtable 1.6% 2.3% 4.0% Joint Committee on Taxation (MEG) 0.1% to 0.3% 0.6% to 1.1% * Joint Committee on Taxation (OLG) 2.2% to 2.3% 1.9% to 1.9% * Employment Central estimate 0.6% 0.9% * Business Roundtable 0.5% 0.4% 0.3% Joint Committee on Taxation (MEG) 0.2% to 0.4% 0.5% to 1.3% * Joint Committee on Taxation (OLG) 1.4% to 1.5% 1.3% to 1.5% * *Long-run results not reported. Note: Central estimate is the midpoint of the estimated range. When estimated across models, an equal weight is given to the OLG models (50% weight) and the MEG model (50% weight). The long-run refers to when the economy has fully adjusted. Models of this type typically find that two-thirds to three-quarters of the long-run change in GDP is attained within 10 years. Source: John Diamond and George Zodrow, Dynamic macroeconomic estimates of the effects of Chairman Camp's 2014 tax reform discussion draft, Report prepared for the Business Roundtable, March 2014; and Joint Committee on Taxation, Macroeconomic analysis of the "Tax Reform Act of 2014," JCX-22-14, February While other base-broadening, rate-reducing tax reform plans have been put forward, their macroeconomic impacts have not been estimated. In 2010, the President s National Commission on Fiscal Responsibility and Reform (the Simpson-Bowles Commission) released a comprehensive tax plan that reformed both the corporate and individual income taxes with emphasis on lowering tax rates and broadening the tax base. In 2011, former Senate Finance Committee Chairman Ron Wyden, D-Ore., and Senator Dan Coats, R-Ind., introduced the Bipartisan Tax Fairness and Simplification Act of In 2012, the Administration provided an outline for a base-broadening, rate-reducing business tax reform in its Framework for Business Tax Reform. These plans all loosely follow the approach used in TRA86, which eliminated or scaled back special tax provisions to pay for lower tax rates. 9 Though we have no macroeconomic analyses for these other recent plans, estimates of the Camp tax plan s impact on consumers and the overall economy are likely indicative of what a base-broadening, rate-reducing tax reform could realistically be expected to achieve. 6

12 IV. Limitations and caveats While the Camp tax plan can generally be regarded as following in the tradition of the base-broadening, ratereducing TRA86, the specific base broadeners included in a tax reform plan can have an impact on the estimated macroeconomic impact of a tax plan, as can overall revenue impacts. It is important to note that certain base broadeners, particularly those that impact marginal investment incentives, may dampen the potential benefit from a base-broadening, rate-reducing tax reform, particularly over the long term. For a revenue-neutral tax reform, the negative impact of eliminating or scaling back investment-related tax provisions would be netted against the positive impact of lower tax rates. On net, however, a lower CIT rate, even when combined with the repeal or limitation of investment-related business tax provisions, can be expected to lead to increased consumption and additional economic growth. 10 This is illustrated by two prominent studies that examined the macroeconomic impacts of hypothetical reforms of the U.S. CIT that pay for a lower CIT rate by broadening the tax base. These studies analyze the sensitivity of the estimated impacts for a business tax reform by pairing a lower CIT rate with different tax provisions included as part of the base broadening under the reform. The first of the two studies is a 2014 Oxford University Centre for Business Taxation paper using an OLG model similar to those used to analyze the Camp tax plan. 11 This study contains a full base-broadening scenario that funds a revenue-neutral 16.8% CIT rate and a partial base-broadening scenario that funds a revenue-neutral 25.1% CIT rate. The partial basebroadening scenario retains accelerated depreciation (a significant investment-related tax provision) and 65% of the other investment incentives, which results in a more positive macroeconomic impact in GDP, consumption and employment than the full base-broadening scenario. For example, after the U.S. economy fully adjusts to the tax reform (i.e., the long run), GDP increases by 0.4% rather than 0.1% because most of the investment-related tax provisions in the tax code are retained. A 2011 study by three JCT economists found a similar effect when investment incentives were scaled back to pay for rate reductions. Using the MEG model, this study analyzed the net effect of rate reduction and base broadening by comparing the macroeconomic impact of pairing a reduction in the CIT rate from 35% to 30% with: (1) base broadeners that have no impact on marginal investment incentives and (2) the partial repeal of a significant investment-related tax provision. The increase in GDP is smaller in the latter case, namely a 0.1% increase relative to a 0.2% increase (first five years), a 0.1% decrease relative to a 0.2% increase (second five years) and a 0.1% increase relative to a 0.4% increase (long run). 12 In both of these macroeconomic simulations, including the repeal or limitation of investment-related business tax provisions as part of a base-broadening, rate-reducing tax reform led to increased consumption and additional economic growth. 7

13 V. Summary While tax reform roughly three decades ago put the U.S. CIT rate below the prevailing rate among other developed countries, the combination of a largely unchanged U.S. CIT rate and the trend of CIT rate reductions among other developed countries has resulted in the United States being a relatively high tax country at a potentially significant economic cost. The relatively high U.S. CIT rate has been found to discourage investment and capital accumulation and ultimately reduce labor productivity and living standards. While inaction in the United States has been estimated to have real economic consequences, this also suggests the potential upside of tax reform. Prominent macroeconomic analyses have found that a base-broadening, rate-reducing reform, such as the various tax reform plans put forward by the Administration and prominent members of Congress, could have both immediate and longterm positive impacts for consumers and workers through increased GDP, consumer spending, employment and wages. 8

14 Endnotes 1 To increase the comparability of CIT rates across countries, both national and subnational CIT rates are included. Subnational tax rates refer to state and local tax rates in the case of the United States. This is important to capture the differing degree to which a country s CIT rate is applied at the national versus subnational level. In the United States the top federal CITrate is 35% and state corporate income taxes add another 4% after taking into account deductibility. 2 See Robert Carroll, John Diamond, and George Zodrow, Macroeconomic Effects of Lower Corporate Income Tax Rates Recently Enacted Abroad, EY Report prepared for the Reforming America s Taxes Equitably (RATE) Coalition, March The macroeconomic analysis of the CIT reform enacted in other countries also accounted for some of the broadening of the CIT bases that might have accompanied the enactment of lower CIT rates. In particular, the analysis accounted for changes in other countries cost recovery systems used for depreciating investment in tangible property. 4 In particular, the simulations differed in (1) the policy used to offset the revenue loss associated with capital outflows and lower GDP (either a reduction in government transfers or an increase in wage taxes) and (2) key parameters for the purpose of sensitivity testing (one simulation incorporating higher firm-specific capital adjustment costs and the other assuming a higher capital supply elasticity). 5 It is not uncommon for estimates of the change in employment to show small changes or even increases in simulations for this type of policy change in this type of model. As the price of capital increases relative to the price of labor, there can be a shift from capital to labor (e.g., a decline in the capital-labor ratio) as the capital intensity of the economy falls. In particular for this policy simulation, the current impact to employment is an estimated change of 0.0% to 0.8% and, after the U.S. economy fully adjusts, an estimated change of -0.2% to 0.9%. 6 Additionally, the Tax Reform Act of 2014 would move the United States from its current worldwide tax system (i.e., U.S.-based global companies are currently taxed on their worldwide income but can generally defer U.S. tax on earnings of foreign subsidiaries until repatriated) toward a territorial tax system (i.e., exempt from U.S. tax 95% of the active, nonmobile, foreign-source portion of dividends received by a U.S. corporation from a foreign corporation in which it owns at least a 10% stake). 7 An additional macroeconomic analysis of the Tax Reform Act of 2014 was conducted by the Tax Foundation. The analysis only estimated long-run impacts and found that GDP would increase by 0.2% and employment would increase by 0.5%. These results are broadly similar to the low-end estimates of the JCT s MEG model in the second five-year period, but notably smaller than the central estimates of this report. See Stephen Entin, Michael Schuyler and William McBride, An Economic Analysis Of The Camp Tax Reform Discussion Draft, May The central estimates reported in Table 2 are calculated as a weighted average of the estimates from these three modeling efforts, but due to the similarity of the OLG models used by the JCT and BRT, the MEG and OLG models are each given a 50% weight. Additionally, note that the BRT analysis reported impacts in years 2, 5 and 10, whereas the JCT analysis reported impacts averaged over the first five years and averaged over the second five years. To make the results comparable, the JCT impacts over the first five years are compared to the BRT impacts in year 2 and the JCT impacts over the second five years are compared to an average of the reported BRT impacts in year 5 and year While TRA86 was broadly revenue neutral, it was designed and estimated to lower taxes on individual and increase taxes on corporations (i.e., a shift in revenue from corporations to individuals). Whether the higher taxes on corporations materialized is not clear. 9

15 Endnotes (continued) 10 Notably, the repeal of accelerated depreciation would offset at least to some extent the positive effects of a lower CIT rate on new investment by increasing the cost of capital. Its adverse effects on new investment may well be larger than the positive effects associated with a lower CIT rate with a similar revenue cost because accelerated depreciation is focused on new investment, whereas a lower corporate income tax rate reduces the tax on the return to both new and old investment, where the latter has no positive economic effect because this investment is already in place. This result is more likely when the reform is analyzed using a closed economy that does not allow for capital to rise or fall depending on the attractiveness of the United States as a place to invest as compared to other countries, and when the model does not adequately capture the reduction in the shifting of corporate profits and deductions in response to changes in the difference between the U.S. CIT rate and the CIT rate of other countries. On net, a lower CIT rate, even when combined with repeal of accelerated depreciation and most other investment-related business tax expenditures, can be expected to result in additional economic growth. See, for example, Robert Carroll, John Diamond, Thomas Neubig, and George Zodrow, The dynamic economic effects of a U.S. corporate income tax rate reduction, April See Robert Carroll, John Diamond, Thomas Neubig, and George Zodrow, The dynamic economic effects of a U.S. corporate income tax rate reduction, In Pathways to Fiscal Reform in the United States, John Diamond and George Zodrow, eds, MIT Press, Note that the overlapping generations (OLG) model in this paper reports smaller macroeconomic impacts from base-broadening, rate-reducing tax reform in large part because of a less developed modeling of the foreign sector and income shifting relative to the OLG models used in the BRT and JCT reports. 12 See Nicholas Bull, Tim Dowd, and Pamela Moomau, (2011), Corporate tax reform: A macroeconomic perspective, National Tax Journal, 64 (4), pp The major investment-related business tax provision refers to accelerated depreciation. The numbers reported in the text are a simple average of the neutral and aggressive monetary policy results. Note that while the partial repeal of accelerated depreciation paired with a five percentage-point reduction in the CIT rate is estimated to be revenue neutral over the 10-year budget window, this combination loses revenue outside of the budget window because the partial repeal of accelerated depreciation raises significantly more revenue in earlier years than later years. For example, one estimate suggests that the full repeal of accelerated depreciation could fund a 30.3% CIT rate (4.7 percentage-point reduction) over the 10-year budget window but it could only fund a 32.3% CIT rate (2.7 percentage-point reduction) in the long run. See Jane Gravelle, (2011), Reducing depreciation allowances to finance a lower corporate tax rate, National Tax Journal, 64 (4), pp