iii Table of Contents Preface... xiii Purpose... xiii Outline of Chapters... xiv New to the Second Edition... xvii Acknowledgements... xviii Chapter 1: Introduction... 1 1.1: Social Research... 1 Introduction... 1 Purpose of Research... 1 Research Traditions... 2 New Trends in Research... 5 1.2: Research Ethics... 7 Importance of Ethical Research... 7 Characteristics of Ethical Research... 7 Institutional Review Boards... 9 1.3: Chapter 1 Review... 11 Chapter 2: Qualitative Research... 15 2.1: Basic Concepts... 15 Introduction... 15 Sampling... 16 Qualitative Designs... 18 Central Questions... 20 2.2: Research Tools... 22 Data Collection... 22 Data Analysis... 23 Reporting the Findings... 25 2.3: Threats to Validity... 26
iv Introduction... 26 Researcher Bias... 26 Descriptive Validity... 27 Interpretive Validity... 27 Theoretical Validity... 27 Internal Validity... 28 External Validity... 28 2.4: Chapter 2 Review... 29 Chapter 3: Quantitative Research... 33 3.1: Basic Concepts... 33 Introduction... 33 Constructs... 34 Sampling... 35 Measurement... 38 Scales of Measurement... 42 Measurement Validity... 44 Normal Distribution... 45 Item and Test Analysis... 47 3.2: Quantitative Research Designs... 49 Introduction... 49 Non-Experimental Designs... 49 Experimental Designs... 58 Pre-Experimental Designs... 64 Single-Case Designs... 65 Mixed Methods Designs... 67 3.3: Threats to Validity... 68 Overview... 68 Internal Validity... 68 External Validity... 74 3.4: Chapter 3 Review... 79 Chapter 4: Evaluation Research... 85
v 4.1: Basic Concepts... 85 Overview... 85 Evaluation Types... 86 Evaluation Strategies... 87 Evaluation Framework... 89 Evaluation Questions... 90 Evaluability Assessment... 92 4.2: Chapter 4 Review... 97 Chapter 5: Using SPSS... 101 5.1: Introduction... 101 SPSS Help... 101 Data Preparation... 102 5.2. SPSS Data Editor... 104 Introduction... 104 Entering Data Manually... 105 Importing Data... 109 Codebook... 109 Comparing Datasets... 110 Screening Data... 111 Editing Data... 112 Selecting Cases... 113 Weighting Cases... 115 Computing Variables... 116 Recoding Variables... 117 Dealing with Missing Values... 118 Sorting Cases and Variables... 119 Splitting Files... 120 Printing Data... 121 Saving and Exporting Data... 122 5.3. SPSS Syntax Editor... 123 5.4. SPSS Output Editor... 125
vi 5.5. Chapter 5 Review... 128 Chapter 6: Descriptive Statistics... 131 6.1: Introduction... 131 Overview... 131 SPSS Procedures... 132 6.2: Measures of Central Tendency... 134 Mean... 134 5% Trimmed Mean... 135 Median... 135 Mode... 135 Summary... 136 6.3: Measures of Dispersion... 137 Standard Deviation... 137 Variance... 138 Standard Error of the Mean... 138 Skewness... 139 Kurtosis... 140 Range... 141 Interquartile Range... 142 Outliers... 143 Summary... 144 6.4: Measures of Relative Position... 145 Percentiles... 145 Deciles... 145 Quartiles... 145 6.5: Normal Curve Transformations... 146 (Z-Score, N(0,1)... 146 T-Score, N(50,10)... 147 Normal Curve Equivalent (NCE) Score, N(50, 21.06)... 148 Stanine Score... 148 Standardized Norm-Referenced Testing... 148
vii 6.6: Graphs and Charts... 150 Creating Graphs and Charts in SPSS... 150 Line Chart... 150 Bar Chart... 152 Pie Chart... 153 Histogram... 154 Boxplot... 155 Stem-and-Leaf Plot... 157 Scatterplot... 158 Q-Q Plot... 161 Detrended Q-Q Plot... 163 P-P Plot... 164 6.7: Chapter 6 Review... 165 Chapter 7: Inferential Statistics... 171 7.1: Basic Concepts... 171 Introduction... 171 Estimation... 174 Confidence Intervals... 175 Hypothesis Testing... 176 Steps in Inferential Statistics... 187 7.2: Evaluating Test Assumptions... 190 Introduction... 190 Independence of Observations... 190 Measurement Without Error... 191 Normality... 192 Linearity... 198 Homogeneity of Variance... 201 Homoscedasticity... 201 Homogeneity of Variance-Covariance Matrices... 203 Sphericity... 203 Homogeneity of Regressions... 204
viii Multicollinearity... 204 Dealing with Deviations... 206 7.3: Test Decision Tree... 209 7.4: Chapter 7 Review... 213 Chapter 8: Goodness-of-Fit Tests... 219 8.1: Introduction... 219 8.2: Nonparametric Tests... 221 Chi-Square ( 2) Goodness-of-Fit Test... 221 Binomial Test... 225 Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test... 229 Shapiro-Wilk W Test... 234 Wald-Wolfowitz Runs Test for Randomness... 237 One-Sample Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test... 240 8.3: Parametric Tests... 244 One-Sample t-test... 244 8.4: Chapter 8 Review... 248 Chapter 9: Difference Tests... 251 9.1: Introduction... 251 Overview... 251 Multivariate Tests... 252 Factorial Designs... 252 Post Hoc Multiple Comparison Tests... 256 Contrasts... 257 Controlling Type I Error... 258 9.2: Nonparametric Tests... 260 McNemar Test... 260 Related Samples Sign Test... 263 Wilcoxon Matched-Pair Signed Ranks Test... 266 Cochran s Q Test... 270 Mann-Whitney U Test... 273 Median Test... 276
ix Kruskal-Wallis H Test... 279 Friedman Test... 283 9.3: Parametric Tests... 288 Levene s Test of Equality of Variance... 288 Independent t-test... 289 Dependent t-test... 294 Between Subjects Analysis of Variance... 297 Within Subjects Analysis of Variance... 309 Multivariate Analysis of Variance... 316 Analysis of Covariance... 324 9.4: Chapter 9 Review... 332 Chapter 10: Correlation and Prediction Tests... 337 10.1: Introduction... 337 Overview... 337 Correlation... 338 Reliability... 344 Regression... 349 10.2: Nonparametric Tests... 351 Pearson Chi-Square ( 2) Contingency Table Analysis... 351 Relative Risk and Odds Ratio... 355 Phi ( ) and Cramér s V... 359 Contingency Coefficient... 362 Lambda ( )... 364 Uncertainty Coefficient (UC)... 367 Gamma ( )... 370 Eta ( ) Correlation Coefficient... 373 Spearman Rank Order Correlation Test... 375 Somers d... 378 Kendall s Tau-b ( b) and Tau-c ( c)... 380 Intraclass Correlation Coefficient... 384 Cohen s Kappa ( )... 386
x Binomial Logistic Regression... 389 10.3: Parametric Tests... 397 Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Test... 397 Point-Biserial Correlation (rpb)... 400 Internal Consistency Reliability Analysis... 403 Partial Correlation... 407 Bivariate Regression... 410 Multiple Regression and Correlation... 417 Discriminant Analysis... 430 Principal Components and Factor Analysis... 439 Canonical Correlation Analysis... 451 Two-Step Cluster Analysis... 460 10.4: Chapter 10 Review... 463 Chapter 11: Research Manuscripts... 469 11.1: Introduction... 469 11.2: Research Report Format... 471 Front Matter... 471 Introduction... 471 Literature Review... 474 Methodology... 475 Results... 476 Discussion... 480 End Matter... 481 11.3: Chapter 11 Review... 482 Chapter 12: Case Studies... 485 12.1: Research Methodology Cases... 485 Case #1 - Correlation Study... 485 Case #2 - Experimental Study... 486 Case #3 - Longitudinal Study... 487 Case #4 - Non-Experimental Study... 488 Case #5 - Non-Experimental Study... 488
xi Case #6 - Experimental Study... 489 12.2: Statistical Analysis Cases... 490 Case #7 - Data Screening... 490 Case #8 - Correlation Analysis... 490 Case #9 - Two Groups Analysis... 491 Case #10 - Multiple Groups Analysis... 492 Case #11 - Regression Analysis... 493 Case #12 - Repeated Measures Analysis... 494 Case #13 - Repeated Measures Analysis... 495 12.3: Preferred Solutions... 496 Case #1 Solution - Correlation Study... 496 Case #2 Solution - Experimental Study... 497 Case #3 Solution - Longitudinal Study... 498 Case #4 Solution - Non-Experimental Study... 500 Case #5 Solution - Non-Experimental Study... 501 Case #6 Solution - Experimental Study... 503 Case #7 Solution - Data Screening... 505 Case #8 Solution - Correlation Analysis... 513 Case #9 Solution - Two Groups Analysis... 515 Case #10 Solution - Multiple Groups Analysis... 516 Case #11 Solution - Regression Analysis... 520 Case #12 Solution - Repeated Measures Analysis... 523 Case #13 Solution - Repeated Measures Analysis... 527 Appendix A: Statistical Abbreviations and Symbols... 531 Appendix B: Glossary... 537 Appendix C: About the Authors... 585 Appendix D: References... 587 Index... 597