Incidence of Value Added Tax (Vat) in the Developing Countries: A Case in Bangladesh

Transcription

1 Incidence of Value Added Tax (Vat) in Developing Countries: A Case in Bangladesh Author Faridy, Nahida, Sarker, Tapan Published 2011 Journal Title International Journal of Trade, Economics, and Finance Copyright Statement 2011 IACSIT. The attached file is reproduced here in accordance with copyright policy of publisher. Please refer to journal's website for access to definitive, published version. Downloaded from Link to published version Griffith Research Online

2 Incidence of Value Added Tax (Vat) in Developing Countries: A Case in Bangladesh Nahida Faridy and Tapan Sarker Abstract is a broad-based tax levied at multiple stages of production (and distribution) with crucially taxes on inputs credited against taxes on output. Bangladesh introduced in 1991 replacing previous taxes like sales tax, excise duty and business turnover taxes. In last two decades has become an all encompassing domestic tax covering domestic manufacturing, wholesale, retail and all service sectors in country. This paper is a first attempt to measures incidence of Value Added Tax () in Bangladesh. The results show that incidence varies for people in different income groups. For instance, incidence for lowest income group is 6.92 percent whereas for highest income group it is only 4.56 percent. The higher income groups are also enjoying fewer burdens than lower income groups. Comparing results with and without exemptions, study finds that overall in Bangladesh is regressive. The study provides some policy recommendations that could help design a better system in developing countries with a particular case in Bangladesh. Index Terms Tax incidence, Value Added Tax, progressivity, empirical study, Bangladesh I. INTRODUCTION Few fiscal issues are more important in developing countries than Value Added Tax [1]. This tax is considered to have advantages compared with or taxes, because it eliminates cascading, allows for zero rating of exports, and it is broad based and difficult to evade. was first introduced on an extensive scale in France in Since n, more than 130 countries in world had adopted a of some kind. Like many developing countries, Bangladesh introduced in 1991 with a view to mobilize its internal revenue collection and to bring transparency to its indirect tax system. At present, is a significant source of revenue in Bangladesh. For last 20 years more than 30 percent of revenue collected by National Board of Revenue (NBR) in Bangladesh was from and its contribution is increasing day by day. The question arises n who actually bears burden of in Bangladesh. This paper tries to answer this question by measuring incidence of in Bangladesh. Manuscript received August1, 2010; revised September 21, Submitted to International Journal of Trade, Economics, and Finance (IJTEF, ISSN: X). This paper was selected as best paper in 2011 International Conference on Financial Management and Economics - ICFME 2011 held in Hong Kong, July 2-3, Corresponding author, Tel , Fax: , ( tapan.sarker@griffith.edu.au). II. INCIDENCE OF VALUE ADDED TAX IN BANGLADESH The study of tax incidence is, broadly defined, studies of effects of tax policies on distribution of economic welfare [2]. It is study of who bears burden of tax. There are various ways to measure progressivity of taxation. An incidence analysis attempts to answer who bears burden of a particular tax [3]. Any attempt to evaluate "fairness" of a tax (or a change in tax system) requires knowing whose disposable income is changed and by how much in response to tax. Economists often refer to taxes as "regressive" or "progressive," but confusion over terms' meanings requires careful definitions. The definitions that most economists use rely on average tax rate, that is, ratio of tax liabilities to income. A tax is regressive if average tax rate falls with an increase in income, proportional if average tax rate is constant and progressive if average tax rate rises with income. Simply put, low-income people pay a higher fraction of ir income in taxes than wealthier people if tax is regressive and a lower fraction of ir income if tax is progressive. In Bangladesh, tax revenue accounts for about eighty percent of total revenue of Government. However, like in many or developing countries, very limited research has been undertaken to measure incidence of indirect taxes and particularly for in Bangladesh. Chowdhury [4] provides an estimate of incidence analysis of indirect taxation between sectors and socioeconomic groups in Bangladesh. The study finds that nominal tax incidence to be less than one percent for all sectors except in industry (4.52%) and energy (18.47%) sectors. Effective tax incidences on or hand, were more than one percent for all sectors. This suggests that industrial sector shifts almost half of its nominal tax liability to or sectors. In that study, we find that incidence of on poorest of urban income groups is higher than that on middle-income groups, but incidence rises as income increases for people of rural areas. III. OVERVIEW OF TAX REVENUE AND IN BANGLADESH Sound fiscal policy is fundamental to maintain macroeconomic stability and foster economic growth of any country. Excess expenditure over revenue collection (fiscal deficit) may have an adverse effect on macroeconomic stability. This means resource mobilization, wher sourced internally or externally, is immensely important to overall economic management of a government. In most 437

3 developing countries, taxes are primary sources of revenue for government. This is true in Bangladesh, where tax revenue accounts for about 80 percent of total government revenue, and alone accounts for more than 35 percent of total tax revenue [5]. Tax revenue is main source of Government revenue all over world. It is major source of mobilizing domestic resources. The government s main visions for resource mobilization are: 1. Establish social justice and equity; 2. Provide reasonable protection to domestic industries; 3. Support growth of agriculture and rural economy and patronize small and medium enterprises; 4. Attract more investment and increase employment opportunities. As a developing nation, Bangladesh is still heavily dependent on indirect taxes. Analysis of revenue collection activities by categories of last 19 years from introduction of shows that bulk of revenue collection comes from indirect taxes in spite of huge exemptions and distortions. If we take into account about individual taxes, contribution of are highest. Income Tax occupies second place and next positions are held by Import Duties, Supplementary Duty and Or Taxes and Duties respectively. Fig. 1 shows share of direct and indirect taxes collected by National Board of Revenue (NBR) in Bangladesh in FY Customs Duty 15% Supplement ary Duties Excise Duty 17% 1% Ors 1% Income Tax 28% 38% Fig. 1. Share of Direct and Indirect Taxes by NBR in Bangladesh in FY [6,7]. IV. HISTORY OF IN BANGLADESH Bangladesh had a relatively complicated indirect tax system after liberation. It failed to provide domestic resources needed for achieving macroeconomic goals of government. The system relied tooo heavily on taxation of imports which essentially taxed raw materials and intermediate goods. The import based taxation performed two related functions. It was both revenue raising and protective. The structure of protection again afforded unintended protection to industries, not justified on. economic grounds. It thus led to inefficiencies in production and created an overwhelming anti-exportt bias. Since, around sixty percent of total tax revenue is collected from import based taxation, revenue collection in Bangladesh effectively became a hostage to balance of payments situation. The system of excise taxation used for collecting revenue from domestic production and services was also badly flawed. The base was very narrow; ree were too many rates and exemptions. In absence of a credit mechanism substantial cascading was prevalent. There was also a lack of harmony in regard to tax treatment of imports and domestically produced goods. The resultant effects of all se were that tax- and system of taxation was inefficient, distortionary and GDP ratio in Bangladesh was one of lowest in world inelastic. So to overcome all se obstacless and to activate overall economy by mobilizing more in internal resources, to bring a consistency in tax-gdp ratio and to bring transparency in entire taxation system in April 1979, The Taxation Enquiry Commission (TEC) officially took up issue of introducing in Bangladesh as an alternative to sales tax. The objective behind introducing in Bangladesh were to (a) bring transparency in taxation system; (b) prohibit cascading taxation at different stages of production; (c) consolidate tax administration; (d) activate overall economy by mobilizing more in internal resources; and (e) bring a consistency in tax- quite instrumental in gradually mobilizing more domestic resources in line with growth trend of economic development. In spite of many exemptions, is GDP ratio. From very beginning, in Bangladesh has been leading revenue in NBR. Its contribution is highest in total revenue of NBR. But revenue authority should concentrate on gap between potential revenue and actual revenue and underground economy of Bangladesh. Because of guidelines of WTO and trade liberalization, government reducedd customs duties drastically. So government didn t have any or better alternatives without depending on revenue. One anor importantt thing behind introduction of was reducing dependency on foreign loans. Thus, replacing traditional excise duties and sales tax government introduced and it has been quite instrumental in gradually mobilizing more domestic resources in line with growth trend of economicc developmental. In spite of many exemptions, is leading revenue in NBR. Its contribution is highest in total revenue of NBR. In first year of introduction, at FY , total was collected billion taka. It was 23 percent of total collected revenue of NBR at thatt period. In FY , total was billion taka which was 4.6 percent of GDP. In FY , total collection reaches to billion taka, percent of total revenue collected by NBR. collection trend and scenario from FY to FY is shown below in Table

4 TABLE 1: TAX REVENUE RECIEPT IN MAJOR TAXES TYPE (NBR) (In Billion Tk.) Year Income tax CD Excise duty SD Ors Total Source: Bangladesh Economic Review [8]. [Notes: SD = Supplementary Duty, CD = Customs Duty] The in Bangladesh has a broader coverage compared to bases of taxes it has replaced. However, Bangladesh is a developing nation, which means that its has a number of exemptions for equity reasons, making it less efficient and more distortionary than it would orwise be. Exemptions from include such items as live animals, poultry, fish, meat, liquid milk, vegetables, fruits, herbs and spices, animal hides, fuel wood, raw jute etc. In addition, services for livelihood, services for social welfare, services related to charity, government education etc. is also exempted from. People in Bangladesh, especially low income group people spend ir 60 percent of income for consumption of food items and most of food items are exempted from for equity reasons. A sense of scope of exemptions can be gained from Table 2. It should be noted that underground economy in Bangladesh, estimated to amount to 37% of country s GDP during beginning of 2000s, has also contributed to under-collection of [9]. TABLE 2: POTENTIAL AND ACTUAL COLLECTION BY NBR (In Crore Tk.) Year Potential Actual Ratio of collection Year Potential Actual Ratio of Collection ,312 4, ,317 8, ,170 4, ,028 10, ,199 5, ,017 12, ,375 6, ,079 13, ,574 6, ,065 17, ,882 8, ,985 20, Source: [5,10]. Note: 1 Crore = 10million As shown in Table 2, ratio of potential to actual is increasing year by year. As Government is expanding net and exemption list is gradually decreasing, actual collection situation is improving. Given high level of poverty in Bangladesh and number of exemptions from, it becomes important to measure progressivity (or orwise) of in Bangladesh, and wher any improvements to current situation can be made. V. DATA AND METHODS This study primarily used Household Income Expenditure Survey (HIES) 2005 data to measure incidence of in Bangladesh. Additional data available from or government sources, including National Board of Revenue (NBR) and Bangladesh Bank were also used. To measure incidence of, we first calculate Effective Rate on following way: Effective Rate = [(Actual paid / Per capita consumption) x 100] The Effective Rate among different income groups can show us wher tax system is progressive or regressive. The Relative Tax Burden Index is also important to determine progressiveness of a tax, which is defined as ratio (expressed in percentage terms) of its share of total taxes to its share of total income. The relative tax burden concept is also important to determine progressiveness of a tax. The relative tax burden of each quintile is defined as ratio (expressed in percentage terms) of its share of total taxes to its share of total income. For instance, a quintile paying 10 percent of aggregate tax and receiving 15 percent of total income would have a relative tax burden of 66.6 percent. In this study to determine progressiveness of on individual expenditure items, relative tax burden index for various income groups has been computed. If value of index for a income group is greater (less) than 100, n that group is paying a greater (smaller) proportion of ir income in. The tends to be progressive (regressive) if value of this index increases (decreases) as we move up from lower to higher income groups. In this study to determine progressiveness of on individual expenditure items, we calculate relative tax burden index for various income groups. The Relative tax burden index and effective rates can give an overall picture about, wher it is progressive or regressive. However, to measure how progressive is or how regressive it is, Suits Index of Progressivity and Kakwani Index was used in this study. Because of some basic differences, two measures may lead to quite different results about degree of progressivity. Suits Index of Progressivity is used to calculate incidence at urban and rural levels based on following formula: Suits Index of Progressivity or L x S x = 1 ( ) K where S x is progressivity index, K is area of triangle and Lx is covered area below Lorenz curve. Finally, Kakwani Index compares Lorenz curve of pre-tax income and concentration curves of taxes. The 439

5 progressivity or regressivity of overall indirect system is calculated by: n n P = ( μ iα i Pi ) /( μ iα i ) i = 1 i = 1 Where a positive value of Pi means tax is progressive and negative value of Pi means tax is regressive [11]. It was mentioned earlier that more than eighty percent of Bangladesh s revenue is sourced from 9 to 10 items. So, it is clear, if we can measure progressivity of those main generating items we can get some effective results. For example, more than 25 percent of revenue is earning from tobacco and tobacco products. A major share of revenue comes from medicine, gas, telephone, construction companies and from petroleum products. So in this study, it has been taken into account of that items which have a major contribution to in Bangladesh. All taxable commodities are segregated from total consumption of each household based on list of exempt goods and services stated in First Schedule of The Act Although in reality sellers and consumers may share burden partially, this study assumes is fully shifted from seller to final consumer. VI. RESULTS Table 3 presents Effective Rates and shows how burden of 15% varies with changes of percapita household income. The average effective tax rate is 6.01 percent and rate varies as income ranges with minimum of 4.56 percent to maximum 6.92 percent of ir income. TABLE 3: EFFECTIVE RATES IN BANGLADESH IN FY Income Group Income Range Per Capita Paid Effective Rate (In Tk.) Consumption (In Tk.) (%) 1 < 3,999 2, ,000-4,999 4, ,000-5,999 5, ,000-6,999 6, ,000-7,999 6, ,000-8,999 7, ,000-9,999 7, ,000-12,499 8, ,500-14,999 10, ,000-17,499 11, ,500-19,999 12, ,000 & above 19, Average Source: Household Income Expenditure Survey, 2005 [12]. Note: 1.00 USD = 73 Tk The burden in lowest income range is 6.92 percent, which is extremely high given fact that burden of highest income group is only 4.56 percent. The 4 th income group people bear 5.82 percent of burden which is lower than 3 rd income group people. The average effective rate is 6.01 percent, which is higher than that of highest fourth income groups people. The higher income groups are enjoying fewer burdens than lower income groups. Table 4 presents numerical results giving income share, tax share and relative tax burden of for each income group. The actual relative tax burden of and share without exemptions are also shown. Income group TABLE 4: RELATIVE BURDEN INDEX OF IN BANGLADESH Monthly Household Per-Capita Income (in Tk.) Income Share (A) Actual Share (B) Relative Tax Burden (B/A)x100 Share Without Exemptions (C) Relative Tax Burden (C/A)x100 1 < ,000-1, ,250-1, ,500-1, ,000-2, ,500-2, ,000-3, ,500 & above Total Source: [5] [1.00 USD = 73 Tk. 440

6 Actual relative tax burden for lowest income group was 404, but if re is no exemption list it reaches to 648. Again actual share for poorest group was 1.98, but if re is no exemption list, share for poor people will be This means, exempted goods and services are helping poorerr group to take less burden of. The results shows that, withoutt exemptions relative tax burden varies for lower income group but for higher income people it has a little impact and for higher six income groups value of relative tax burden without exemptions is lower than actual burden. The tax tends to be progressive (regressive) if value of relative tax burden index increases (decreases) as we move up to lower to higher income groups [13]. Table 5 summarizes progressivity of based on Suit s Index at national level as well as for urban and rural levels ncluding with and withoutt exemptions. The index shows that degree of progressivity of tax burden distributions for national level, rural and urban people. TABLE 5: P PROGRESSIVITY OF OF BANGLADESH BASED ON SUITS INDEX Particu lars With Exemptions Without Exemptions Natio Urba Rural Natio Urba Rural nal n nal n Lx K Sx Source: [5] This table gives us some interesting results. is regressive in all cases but without exemptions it is more regressive. This is natural as regressiveness of is alleviated by exemptions of products which rank high in budget of lower income people. On or hand, low income households spend more on consumption of food items and rich households spend less on consumption of food and more on non-food items (Engle s Law). But is less regressive (Sx is ) to rural people with exemptions. In HIES 2005, it is found that percent consumption expenditure was accounted for by food and beverage in rural area, whereas, same was percent in urban area. It is mentioned earlier that most of food items are exempted. So for group who consumes more on food and or non-taxable items, will be less regressive. The rural households tend to purchase a larger portion of goods and services from informal retail sector where goods are eir not taxed at all or are more lightly taxed. So, is less regressive in rural areas. Without exemptions value of Sx for urban ( ) is higher than rural ( ). Informal sector and less emphasis to rural areas and districts or than big cities by tax administration are or main reasons to make lesss regressive in rural areas. So conclusion can be made based on findings that, is regressive in Bangladesh as a whole and urban households are bearing more burdens than rural households. The Kakwani Index gives a similar picture. Employing a figure similar to a Lorenz curve, we plot accumulated percent of burden vertically against accumulated percent of income on horizontal axis. Fig 2 represents progressivity of based on total income of each income group. If is proportional curve of would follow diagonal line of per-capita income. Fig.2. Actual Burden of Bangladesh at FY Source: [5]. Since tax burden borne by lowest income group is higher than share of total income Actual curve stands upper diagonal. This curve shows that burden in income groups is regressive, supporting our earlier conclusions from Suits Index above. VII. CONCLUSION The present empirical study showed that burden in lowest income range is 6.92 percent, which is extremely high given fact that burden of highest income group is only 4.56 percent. The average effective rate is 6.01 percent, which is higher than that of highest fourth income groups people. The higher income groups are enjoying fewer burdens than lower income groups. One of Canons of Taxation developed by Adam Smith said that a tax should be linked to Ability to Pay. does not lie in with this because amount of of a particular commodity will be same for everyone, however much y earn. On or hand, a good tax system should be fair in its treatment of different individuals, should be able to ascertain tax burden so that burden can be politically tailored to what society considers desirable and should keep exemptions and deductions at a minimum level [20]. However, reality is totally different in a developing country like Bangladesh where income redistribution is strictly unequal, poverty is hard to reduce, land distribution is quite eccentric and where political norms and values are yet to establish. Like all or countries, is used as a tool of collecting revenue in Bangladesh, rar than to correct inequalities- although a big exemption list exists. Although deemedd to be necessary given poverty in Bangladesh, extensive exemptions are sub-optimal because y create significant distortions. They can also createe a competitive advantage for imports over domestically- tax produced exempt item. Besides this, in FY , expenditures for at domestic stage was estimated to be about 1.6 percent of GDP and more than 60 percent of total 441

7 revenue loss. Some have suggested that, instead of giving so many exemptions, a reduced rate of could be a better choice. But key point here is that even if poor group spends a larger share of ir income for some particular items (food, for example), rich will typically spend a larger absolute amount; so a reduction in tax rate for basic items or exemptions on those items actually means more money to rich than it does to poor. One can also think that, more revenues are available to government for limited exemptions and less tax expenditure, n equity aspect could be better taken care of by increasing supply of Government services to poor, such as better housing, better education, improved medical care and modern transportation system. REFERENCES [1] M. Bird, The in Developing and Transitional Countries, New York: Cambridge University Press, [2] L. Kotlikoff and L. Summers, Tax Incidence in Handbook of Public Economics, A. Auerbach and M. Feldstein (eds), Amsterdam: North-Holland, [3] T. Sarker, Who Bears Burden of Taxes in Developing Countries? A Case of Income Taxation in Bangladesh, Pakistan Economic and Social Review, 44(2): , [4] O. Chowdhury, Incidence of Indirect Taxation in Bangladesh: 1984/85, Research Monograph No. 16, Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies (BIDS), Dhaka, Bangladesh, [5] N. Faridy, Progressivity of Value Added Tax () in Bangladesh, M.S Thesis, Keio University, Japan, [6] Bangladesh Economic Review, Bangladesh Economic Review 2009, Ministry of Finance, Government of People s Republic of Bangladesh, [7] National Board of Revenue, Annual Report , Bangladesh Government Press, National Board of Revenue, Ministry of Finance, Government of People s Republic of Bangladesh, [8] Bangladesh Economic Review, Bangladesh Economic Review 2009, Ministry of Finance, Government of People s Republic of Bangladesh, [9] N. Park, Underground economy: causes and size, presentation by Korea Institute of Public Finance, Seoul, [10] Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Statistical Pocket Book Bangladesh, Government of Bangladesh, [11] N. Kakwani, Analyzing Distribution Policies: A study using Australian Data, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, [12] Household Income & Expenditure Survey (2005) Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Ministry of Planning, Government of People s Republic of Bangladesh. [13] A. Atkinson and J. Stiglitz, Lectures on Public Economics McGraw Hill, New York, Nahida Faridy is a Deputy Commission of Customs (Import) with Chittagong Customs House, National Board of Revenue, Bangladesh. Prior to joining in her current role, she worked as a Second Secretary () with wing of National Board of Revenue, Bangladesh. Her areas of expertise include Value Added Tax () design and administration, modernization of Customs and administration, and capacity building in tax policy and administration in developing countries. Nahida obtained first class Honors and Master s in Economics from Dhaka University, Bangladesh, and a Master s in Tax Policy in Management from Keio University, Japan. Nahida was a recipient of prestigious World Bank Scholarship ( ) at Keio University, Japan. Her recent research on reform in developing countries has been awarded as a best paper in 2011 International Conference on Financial Management and Economics - ICFME 2011 held in Hong Kong, July 2-3, Tapan Sarker (PhD, Australian National University) is a Lecturer and Researcher with Griffith Business School, Griffith University, Australia. He also works as a Tax Policy Consultant with World Bank, Asian Development Bank and IMF. Dr Sarker is currently listed as an expert in Tax Policy with Fiscal Affairs Department of International Monetary Fund. His research has been published in pretigious tax journals, including Bulletin for International Taxation, Asia Pacific Tax Bulletin etc. Dr Sarker was a keynote speaker at 2011 International Conference on Financial Management and Economics - ICFME 2011 held in Hong Kong, July 2-3,