Did Chinas Tax-for-Fee Reform Improve Farmers Welfare in Rural Areas?

Transcription

1 Tulane Economics Working Paper Series Did Chinas Tax-for-Fee Reform Improve Farmers Welfare in Rural Areas? James Alm Department of Economics Tulane University New Orleans, LA Yongzheng Liu Department of Economics, Andrew Young School of Policy Studies Georgia State University Atlanta, GA Working Paper 1305 February 2013 Abstract China enacted a rural tax reform the Tax-for-Fee Reform (TFR) in the late 1990s. A crucial but unanswered question is whether this reform improved farmers welfare in rural areas. This paper uses village-level survey data from the Chinese Household Income Project in order to examine the effect of the TFR on farmers direct and indirect welfare. We find no evidence that the direct welfare effects improved farmers net income. In contrast, the reform appears to have reduced the villages financing capacity, and hence to have lowered their overall expenditures. These indirect effects have had significant negative impacts on farmers welfare. Keywords: Tax-for-Fee Reform; inequality; rural China JEL: H7, I2, I3, O1, O5, P3

2 January 2013 Did China s Tax-for-Fee Reform Improve Farmers Welfare in Rural Areas? JAMES ALM* & YONGZHENG LIU** * Tulane University, New Orleans, LA USA. ** Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA USA. ABSTRACT China enacted a rural tax reform the Tax-for-Fee Reform (TFR) in the late 1990s. A crucial but unanswered question is whether this reform improved farmers welfare in rural areas. This paper uses village-level survey data from the Chinese Household Income Project in order to examine the effect of the TFR on farmers direct and indirect welfare. We find no evidence that the direct welfare effects improved farmer s net income. In contrast, the reform appears to have reduced the villages financing capacity, and hence to have lowered their overall expenditures. These indirect effects have had significant negative impacts on farmers welfare. Keywords: Tax-for-Fee Reform; inequality; rural China. JEL classifications: H7, I2, I3, O1, O5, P3. Correspondence Address: James Alm, Professor and Chair, Department of Economics, 208 Tilton Hall, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA USA. Phone ; fax ; jalm@tulane.edu. 1

3 1. Introduction In the late 1990s, the government of the People s Republic of China (PRC) enacted a rural tax reform known as the Tax-for-Fee Reform (TFR), as a response to rural farmers bitter complaints about what they saw as a heavy fiscal burden. The reform was intended largely to reduce this fiscal burden (as well as to improve local governance). The reform was first formally introduced on a local pilot village basis in 2000, and then was widely carried out in tens of thousands of villages across the nation. 1 This paper utilises the dramatic policy changes introduced by the TFR, both over time and over regions, to examine its impact on farmers welfare. Although a number of papers exist on rural tax reform in China, few have empirically evaluated the impact of this reform on farmers welfare. In large part the absence of these studies is due to the absence of detailed information in rural areas, a problem that is common in many developing countries (Dethier, 1999). Lin and Liu (2007) describe the historical evolution and performance of rural tax reform in great detail, and Yep (2004), Li (2006), Lin and Liu (2007), and Tao and Qin (2007) provide some suggestive evidence that the fiscal burden on farmers was reduced following the introduction of the TFR. 2 However, a reduction in farmers fiscal burdens may not necessarily imply an increase in farmers net income, given the complicated process by which income in rural areas may be affected by different aspects of the reform. For one thing, the TFR brought a direct saving to farmers through the elimination of local fees, which should increase farmers net income, even though this change is likely to be temporary and may diminish over time. Also, the resulting increases in the rate of agricultural taxation after the TFR may adversely affect agricultural production and consequently decrease farmers income (Mushtaq et al., 2008). Further, the TFR largely reshaped the landscape of local governance in 2

4 rural China, which in turn affected some village-specific factors in the determination of farmers income through the provision of production inputs, human capital, and social capital at the village level (Sato, 2008b). Of some importance, the TFR also affected the resources available to local governments, with possible effects on farmers welfare through changes in the actions of these governments (Yi, 2006; Li, 2006). As emphasised by Luo et al. (2007), the TFR may have introduced greater fiscal discipline at the local level, and may thereby have also imposed constraints on public goods provision due to the structural changes of revenue sources and expenditure composition. 3 Several studies have in fact suggested that local governments in rural China experienced a dramatic fall in revenues for financing basic public services provision in the post-tfr period (Zhang et al., 2004; Fork and Wong, 2005; Luo et al., 2007). In a recent study, Meng and Zhang (2011) use a two-year panel of village data from rural China to measure these impacts on local budgets and, especially, to demonstrate their effects on local governance. Due to the large disparities of fiscal capacities in their upper-level governments and the significant differences in the development of off-farm industries, these impacts are also generally known to be geographically different across the nation. While in rich (for example, eastern) provinces the elimination of the rural fees was offset with transfers to local governments from upper-level governments and/or smoothed out by the revenue collection from rural industries, this was not the case in many of the poorer provinces, especially in central and western areas (Yep, 2004; Kennedy, 2007). All of this work suggests that the TFR may have significantly affected the welfare of farmers across several dimensions. Given the vast numbers of people in rural China, measuring these impacts is a crucial issue in evaluating this and other reform efforts. However, evidence 3

5 on the direct and indirect impacts of the reform remains elusive, and indeed to our knowledge there is no systematic quantitative evaluation of the TFR on farmers welfare. In this paper we address this gap by conducting a comprehensive analysis of the welfare implications of the reform based on a detailed village survey data set. Specifically, we examine in this paper whether the TFR has reduced farmers fiscal burden, and also whether the TFR has affected farmers overall welfare. We apply several estimation methods, both cross-sectional propensity score matching and difference-in-difference propensity score matching methods, to village-level survey data from the Chinese Household Income Project (CHIP) in order to examine the effect of the TFR on farmers direct and indirect welfare. We are able to measure both direct and indirect impacts on farmers welfare, in ways that deal with potential selection issues. We measure the direct effect of the TFR on farmers welfare by the change in net income received by farmers after the reform. We measure the indirect effect by changes in their receipt of benefits from village level provision of public services, using changes of the composition of public expenditures as a proxy for this indirect welfare effect of the reform. We find no evidence that the direct welfare effects of the TFR improved farmer s net income. In contrast, the TFR appears to have reduced the villages financing capacity, and hence to have lowered their overall fiscal expenditures, especially expenditures on local welfare programs such as education, public health, and infrastructure. These indirect effects have had significant and negative impacts on farmers welfare. Indeed, our analysis suggests that it is poorer villages that largely undertook these expenditure adjustments, while richer villages experienced no significant changes in these welfare relevant categories. Overall, in the absence of sufficient compensation from upper-level governments either in the form of additional transfers or of realigned expenditure assignments, we conclude that the TFR seems likely to have lowered overall 4

6 farmers welfare in poor villages. This quantitative result extends and complements the more qualitative arguments of Yep (2004) and Kennedy (2007). The remainder of this paper is organised as follows. Section 2 provides some background introduction on the tax system in rural China, including its reform through the TFR. Section 3 develops the empirical framework to evaluate the impact of the TFR on farmers welfare, and also discusses our data. We present our results in section 4 and our conclusions in section The Tax System in Rural China and the Tax-for-Fee Reform Ever since the establishment of the People s Republic of China in 1949, the tax system in rural China has been in flux, with changes driven by the overall national development strategy and by the role of agriculture in the overall economy (Wang, 2008). There have been three broad stages in the local tax system. The first stage spans the period from the establishment of the PRC until the dawning of the open-door reforms in During this period there was an explicit state agriculture tax imposed on farmers at a rate around 10 per cent and collected mainly through a mandatory procurement system; there were also several other agriculture taxes imposed implicitly by increasing the prices of agricultural inputs and depressing the prices of agricultural outputs (for example, so-called price scissors ). 4 The main purposes of agricultural policies during this period were to collectivise the sector and to extract agriculture resources to support the priority industrialised sector, as driven by the choice of a heavy-industry-oriented development strategy in China s planned economy period (Lin et al., 2003). A second stage began in the late 1970s and extended to the early 1990s. This period was characterised by de-collectivisation reforms in the agriculture sector. The Household Responsibility System (HRS) was adopted, which recognised the legal status of farmers in 5

7 claiming the farming production residual after they had fulfilled the required grain quota and agricultural taxes and fees (Lin, 1992; De Brauw et al., 2004). As a consequence of the HRS reform, the mandatory grain quota system was abolished and replaced by grain procurement contracts under which the state continued to tax agriculture implicitly though the price margin between the state grain sector and the market (Lin and Liu, 2007). In this stage, two major categories of fees were introduced (in addition to the implicit taxes) to offset revenue reductions in township governments and villages arising from the HRS reform: five township-pooling funds and three village levies. 5 There were also many illegal levies in the form of fines and financial contributions for expenditure or public projects. As noted by Aubert and Li (2002), it is very difficult to estimate the value of these illegal levies, or even to list all of them. The surge of these diverse and often illegal local charges on farmers (especially those in heavily agriculture-based areas and in poorer regions) generated rising opposition among farmers, which began in the 1990s to threaten rural social stability and even to endanger the state s political legitimacy (Bernstein and Lu, 2000; Tao and Qin, 2007). 6 Indeed, large-scale protest, even conflict, against local authorities was often observed during the process of taxes and fees collection (Aubert and Li, 2002; Chen, 2003). These developments led to the third stage of agricultural policies. To accommodate the farmers bitter complaints, the central government launched the Tax-for-Fee Reform in the late 1990s, with the broad goal of reducing the fiscal burden on farmers. The TFR had several main features. First, all existing township and village levies, including the previous five township pooling funds, the three village levies, and other kinds of informal local fees, were abolished. Second, to substitute for these reduced local charges, there was an increase in the rates of the agriculture tax and agriculture tax supplements. Third, Case-by-case fundraising (or yishiyiyi) 6

8 was introduced to finance special public projects, and budgetary transfers from upper-level governments were adjusted to accommodate local needs. This reform was first formally introduced on a local pilot basis in 2000, and was then carried out nationally. By the end of 2002, 20 of the 31 provinces in China (including municipalities and autonomous regions) had commenced the TFR on a pilot basis (Tao and Qin, 2007). As a further step to reduce the tax burden on farmers, all agricultural-related taxes of the central government were completely eliminated in There is in fact some anecdotal evidence that the implementation of the TFR did in fact reduce farmers fiscal burdens. For instance, in Anhui province a 31 per cent burden reduction across the whole province was reported for the first year of the reform (Yep, 2004). Our study is able to document the changes in the fiscal balance sheet of villages with and without reform between 1998 and In our sample, 1998 is the initial year prior to any reform in any village. Those villages that enacted the TFR in some year before 2002 are grouped as treated villages, and all other villages are grouped as control villages. As shown in Table 1, the TFR had a significant impact on the village balance sheets. In control villages (where the TFR was not in effect), village total revenues per capita rose by 7.4 per cent annually between 1998 and This same measure declined by 1.8 per cent annually in the same period in treated villages. Although local fees per capita had been fully eliminated in treated villages in 2002, transfers per capita in 2002 were only enough to cover 52.2 per cent off the loss of local fees collected in 1998 (or Yuan per capita). Also, total expenditures per capita rose 2.5 percentage points more annually in control villages than in treated villages from 1998 to 2002, implying that treated villages responded to fiscal shortfalls by cutting expenditures. It seems certain that these many changes induced by the TFR had many, potentially conflicting, effects on farmers welfare. Any decline in fiscal burdens should have directly 7

9 increased their welfare; however, any changes in local government services could well have reversed these effects through indirect effects. The next section presents our methodology for quantifying these direct and indirect effects. Note, however, that the TFR had wide-ranging impacts on the landscape of the fiscal balance sheet in the villages, as well as on the budgets of other levels of government. As we show later, village revenues declined significantly due to the termination of informal fundraisings and the absence of sufficient transfers from upper-level governments to replace these funds. At the same time, some village expenditure assignments were assigned to higher levels of government. For example, higher-level governments (mainly county governments) were required to assume a larger responsibility for compulsory education costs in rural areas as a complementary policy to the TFR. These changes in expenditure responsibilities across levels of government suggest that the changes in village budgets alone may not be sufficient to capture the overall changes of farmers welfare. Detailed information on county-level government budgets is not available in our data. However, we believe that it is unlikely that a significant change in expenditure assignments across levels of government did in fact occur, at least changes that would bias our results. For example, Kennedy (2007), and Sato (2008a) show that county governments did not cover all education funding losses at the village level. Also, although in principle upper-level governments were supposed to provide sufficient fiscal transfers to compensate for the loss of revenues in the villages, in practice, they generally failed to do so (Li, 2006). We discuss the ways in which changes in assignments across levels of government might affect our results in more detail later. 3. Empirical Strategy: Methods and Data 8

10 Our strategy uses village-level survey data from the Chinese Household Income Project (CHIP) to quantify changes in farmers welfare, and applies both propensity score matching and difference-in-difference propensity score matching methods to these data. We first introduce the estimation methods, and we then discuss our data in detail Propensity Score Matching Estimation Let " be an indicator of whether the TFR is implemented in village, defined as 1 if reform is enacted and 0 otherwise. Let be the observed value of outcome variables (such as net income per farmer) for village following the implementation of the reform. Also denote as the observed value of the outcome variables if the TFR had not been implemented in the village. The treatment effect i from the TFR for village can be written as:. (1) The fundamental problem of program evaluation arises because we can only observe one of the outcomes for each village, either or. Assessing the impact of the TFR requires making an inference about what would be the counterfactual outcome in a non-reform state for villages where the TFR has indeed been implemented. Therefore, we focus instead on the average treatment effect of the reform on the villages, where the TFR has been in place (ATT), defined for village i as: ATT i " "#$""%&$"'"#$ " ". (2) However, the counterfactual mean for the last term in equation (2), or ", is not observed. Consequently, we have to choose an appropriate substitute in order to estimate the average treatment effect of the reform on the treated villages. 9

11 Now the average outcome value of control villages, or ", is a valid approximation for ", as long as the selection of treated and control villages was a random process under the experimental design of the TFR implementation. However, this assumption seems unlikely to hold, given that factors that determine the implementation of the reform in one village may also simultaneously determine the outcome variables of interest. Using " would likely lead to selection bias, given the systematic difference of outcomes between treated and control villages even in the absence of the TFR. Following the microeconometric evaluation literature (Dahejia and Wahba, 1999, 2002; Lee, 2005), we address this selection bias by using matching techniques to construct a valid counterfactual estimator for the average outcome of treated villages. The underlying logic of the matching estimator is to construct an artificial experimental subset of the original sample in such a way that, conditional on observed characteristics of village i, the selection process of the implementation of the TFR is random. As shown by Rubin (1977), if the outcomes of the TFR are assumed to be independent of program participation after conditioning on a set of covariates, then the average treatment effect ( " is equal to ( ", averaged over the distribution of (" ). To implement this approach, we first find a set of comparable control villages for each treated village on the basis of similarity of observable characteristics. We then compute the difference in the outcome variables of interest and take its mean. This procedure is straightforward if there are only a few covariates. However, with an increase in the dimensions of covariates, this method become difficult to implement because of the difficulty of finding exact matches for each treated village. 8 10

12 We therefore adopt the propensity score matching approach pioneered by Rosenbaum and Rubin (1983) in order to reduce the dimensionality of matching problem. This approach creates a summary measure of similarity in the form of a propensity score. To implement this, we first estimate the probability of the TFR being implemented in village using a binary discrete choice model, or: "#$", (3) where X i denotes observed covariates for village i that are not affected by the implementation of the TFR (or the anticipation of it). 9 We then match each treated village with a control village on the basis of the predicted probability of implementation of the reform, or the propensity score of the reform. The average treatment effect of the TFR on the treated villages ATT is finally obtained by computing the expected value of the difference in the outcome variable between each treated village and the matched control villages. As shown by Todd (2008), a standard matching estimator can be written as: " " (4) ", (5) where denotes the set of treated villages, represents the set of control villages, is the region of common support, is a weighting function, and is the numbers of villages in the set. Denote a neighborhood of village i as, where P i is the propensity score of village i. 10 Then the village matched to village is that village in set such that "# is the corresponding outcome of the matched control village for each treated village belonging to the set. Note that the weighting function in equation (5) assigns the weights for the matched control village in constructing the counterfactual for the treated village. Depending 11

13 on the different definitions of the neighborhood and of the weighting function, several types of matching approaches have been proposed in the literature, such as nearest neighbor matching, caliper matching, and kernel matching. The nearest neighbor matching uses for each treated village only a single control village with the closest difference in propensity score to the treated village. Caliper matching is a variation of nearest neighbor matching that attempts to avoid bad matching by imposing a tolerance level on the maximum propensity score distance. The kernel matching method follows a nonparametric approach to match each treated village with a weighted average of all control villages, using weights that are inversely proportional to the distance between the propensity scores of treated and control group. The nearest neighbor matching and kernel matching are the most commonly used approaches, but we use all three methods in our analysis. We implement the kernel matching estimator by using a weighted average of all villages in the control village group as a baseline estimator to construct the counterfactual outcome; we also construct nearest neighbor and caliper matching estimators to check the robustness of our results. The propensity score matching method provides a reliable estimate for the average treatment effect of the TFR on treated villages only under some assumptions. First, the selection of the TFR must be independent of potential outcomes and, after conditioning on the propensity score, sometimes termed the conditional independence assumption. Second, the average treatment effect of the TFR on treated village must be computed only within the region of common support, which ensures that villages with the same pre-reform observable characteristics values have a positive probability of being assigned to the treated or the control village groups (Heckman et al., 1999). 11 The matching procedure can be checked to determine whether it is able to balance the distribution of the observed covariates in both treated and 12

14 control villages; a lack of balance suggests either a misspecification in the model used to estimate the propensity score or a failure of the conditional independence assumption (Dahejia and Wahba, 2002; Smith and Todd, 2005). The balancing test compares the situation before and after matching, and checks to see whether there remain any differences in the groups after conditioning on the propensity score (Caliendo and Kopeinig, 2008). 12 We employ two different balancing tests: a standardised test of differences between the groups, and a t-test for the equality of each covariate means for both groups. The standardised test of differences was developed by Rosenbaum and Rubin (1985), and has been widely used (Lechner, 1999; Sianesi, 2004; Caliendo and Kopeinig, 2008). This test checks the balance by comparing the sample means of both treated and control villages as a percentage of the square root of the average variances in the corresponding sample before and after matching. The formulae for the standardised difference are: " "#$%" "" " "#$% "", (6) where for each covariate ( and ( represent the mean (variance) for both groups before matching, and ( and ( represent the mean (variance) for both groups after matching. A sufficient reduction of the standardised difference before and after matching or a low enough standardised difference value after matching will be treated as a good balancing outcome. Although there is no consensus on how large a standardised difference should be defined as the threshold of identifying balancing outcome, Rosenbaum and Rubin (1985) suggest a value of 20. We also employ the usual t-test, which performs a paired t-test between treated and control villages to check if there are significant differences in covariate means for the groups Difference-in-difference Matching Estimation 13

15 An alternative estimation approach is the use of difference-in-difference (DID) matching methods, as defined in Heckman et al. (1997) and Heckman et al. (1998). Instead of matching on the basis of level as in propensity score matching (see, for example, equation (4)), the DID matching approach matches on the basis of differences in outcomes (before and after treatment); that is, the treatment effect becomes: " " ), (7) where and are the time period after and before the year of the reform. Since taking the difference in outcomes before and after treatment eliminates any individual-specific, timeinvariant unobserved characteristics, the DID matching method has the additional advantage of avoiding the hidden bias due to unobservables between participants and nonparticipants. 13 As with our propensity score matching estimation, we apply different definitions of the neighborhood and of the weighting function through our use of nearest neighbor matching, caliper matching, and kernel matching, in order to test the robustness of our DID matching estimation Data Our data are based upon a survey from the Chinese Household Income Project (CHIP) (Li, 2002), which was conducted by the Institute of Economics at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences with the assistance of the State Statistical Bureau in Beijing. 14 The dataset consists of samples from both urban and rural populations in China, collected through a series of questionnaire-based interviews at the end of Ten separate datasets are created. The first four datasets (1-4) survey different living aspects of individuals and households in urban areas, such as income and consumption; the last five datasets (6-10) contain similar living aspects for individuals and households in rural areas. The fifth dataset concentrates on village-level data, 14

16 obtained by interviewing village leaders. Since our focus is on the effects of the TFR in which the village was the basic unit of implementation, the fifth village-level dataset in CHIP is a high quality dataset ideal for our purpose. There are two main advantages of the village-level dataset. First, the information provided by the survey is very comprehensive. The survey contains 259 variables for 961 villages distributed across 22 provinces in China. 15 These variables include nearly all aspects of the villages, such as basic geographic information, arable land, agriculture activities, collectives, enterprise, labor force, income, productivity, population, government budget, taxes, expenditures, local election results, and characteristics of village government officials. Such rich information is crucial for us to predict the determinants of the TFR implementation in our matching techniques. Second, the village-level dataset also provides information on almost all variables for periods both before and after the TFR implementation; that is, the survey uses the same questionnaire to provide data for years 1998 and 2002, asking each question for each of two years. This is significant because the conditional independence assumption requires that the variables included in the specification that predicts program participation be unaffected by the program treatment, which requires in turn that the variables should either be fixed over time or measured before participation (Sianesi, 2004; Smith and Todd, 2005). The pre-reform information for year 1998 is required in order to meet this requirement. Our working sample is derived by imposing the restriction that only those villages that have not introduced the TFR by the end of 1998 are included in the sample; several villages that implemented the reform before 1999 are excluded because we use year 1998 information as pretreatment information. This ensures that all observations having the same initial (or pre- 15

17 treatment) status in 1998 can be grouped into either treated villages or control villages by the end of This restriction gives us 841 villages for both years. For measuring the direct welfare effect of the reform on farmers, we use the annual net income per capita in the village (netinc.pc) as a proxy. We use various categories from collective expenditures in per capita term to reflect indirect welfare changes from the reform. There are nine main expenditure items under the village government collective expenditures account: collectively operated reproduction, productive service for farmers, education, public health, infrastructure, other commonweal expenditures, wage and subsidies for village and group cadres, other administrative expenditures, and other expenditures. We group the various specific expenditure items into welfare and non-welfare expenditure program in accordance with their properties and objectives. Correctively operated reproduction, productive service for farmers, education, public health, and infrastructure expenditures are grouped into welfare expenditure programs (welexp1.pc); wage and subsidies for village and group cadres and other administrative expenditures are treated as non-welfare expenditure programs (nonwelexp1.pc). Since the classifications of the two remaining items other commonwealth expenditures and other expenditures are less clear, we test for the sensitivity of our basic results by adding them separately in the welfare and non-welfare programs, thereby creating two alternative measures of welfare and non-welfare expenditure programs (welexp2.pc and nonwelexp2.pc). Data on net income and public expenditures are converted into 1990 Yuan using the rural CPI published in the China Statistical Yearbook. In our estimation of the probability of the TFR being implemented in village using equation (3), the choice of covariates is guided by the criterion that selected variables should influence simultaneously the TFR assignment and these various outcome variables (Dehejia and 16

18 Wahba, 1999, 2002). In the absence of previous research on the determinants of the TFR assignment, we introduce the covariates linearly, and perform the balancing tests to check whether we succeed in balancing the covariates within each stratum. If our balancing tests are successful, then we accept the specification; if not, then we add higher orders of the covariates until the balancing condition is satisfied. 16 Definitions for the outcome and explanatory variables are shown in Table 2. Standard tests for differences in some of the main (unadjusted) features of treated and control villages indicate that the characteristics of treated and control villages are generally different, except in a few cases such as poverty status and net income per village before the TFR implementation; comparison of the outcome variables also indicates some differences, especially a decline of fiscal expenditures in many dimensions for treated villages. 1 However, as emphasised in our earlier discussion of methodology, these comparisons of mean differences do not account for the 1 Simple t-tests for statistical significance between the 247 control villages and the 594 treated villages are: Variable t-values Observable Variables in Probit Model Suburb 1.77 dist_county 6.19 Minority Poverty 0.49 Pilot 3.00 election pop pop98_squ 5.38 planting planting98_squ 4.65 netinc98.pc 1.04 netinc98.pc_squ 2.59 Outcome Variables netinc.pc 1.29 totexp.pc 2.16 welexp1.pc 1.67 welexp2.pc 1.76 nonwelexp1.pc 0.87 nonwelexp2.pc

19 potential selection bias generated by other characteristics that may affect the implementation of the TFR and outcome variables simultaneously. Therefore, we now turn to the analysis of our propensity score matching and DID matching estimation results. It should be noted that we also examine whether the TFR had different effects by region (or coastal versus inland villages) and by income (or poor versus rich villages); these definitions and the associated results are discussed in detail later. 17 We have also estimated all of our various models and specifications using the levels of the direct and indirect measures rather than the per capita measures; our results are largely unaffected, and so are not reported. Finally, we assess the possible effects of changing government responsibilities on our results, even though detailed information on these effects is not available in our CHIP data. We do not report all estimation results, but all results are available upon request. 4. Empirical Results 4.1. Propensity Score Matching Estimation Results We first estimate a specification that generates the propensity scores for the TFR, using a probit model to predict the probability of introducing the reform. Second, we perform a balancing test to check the success of propensity score estimation in balancing covariates between treated and control villages. Third, we generate kernel and other matching estimators to calculate the effect of the TFR on farmers direct and indirect welfare. Probit Estimation Results of the propensity scores estimation are reported in Table 3. We estimate various specifications: all villages, coastal villages, inland villages, rich villages, and poor villages. 18

20 (These other classifications are discussed and used later.) In all cases, our probit estimation reveals the significant role of specific characteristics in the selection of villages for the reform. Balancing and Common Support Evidence Table 4 reports the standardised differences and regression-based balancing test results after Gaussian kernel matching. The standardised differences between treated and control villages are all less than 8 per cent, and most are less than 4 per cent. The per cent bias reduction (column 4) from the use of matching techniques is substantial. The balancing result based on the standardised differences test is also confirmed by the regression-based tests. The t-statistics reported in the last column of Table 4 demonstrate that we fail to reject the hypothesis that the mean differences for all covariates between treated and control villages are equal to zero. Thus, both balancing tests suggest the effectiveness of our chosen propensity score specification in accounting for selection bias in our sample. Since our objective is to make treated villages comparable to control villages in order to estimate the average treatment effect of the TFR on farmers welfare, the common support condition is imposed to ensure that the matching estimation is taken in the region of common support. As a result, there are 684 (out of 841) observations in the common support region, of which 489 are treated villages and 195 are control villages. Figure 1 shows the histogram for the propensity scores before matching for both treated and control villages. This figure clearly reveals that the region of common support is ample, and in fact relatively few cases are dropped because they lie off the common support. Kernel Matching Estimates Having established that propensity scores are balanced and that the common support condition is justified, we conclude that the treated and the matched control villages are 19

21 comparable, and we present the empirical results on the average treatment effect on the treated villages (ATT) from the kernel matching estimator in columns 1 and 2 of Table 5. These findings suggest several main results. First, the estimates indicate that the TFR had no statistically significant impact on farmers direct welfare, where direct welfare is measured either through the level of net income or its log form. Note that there is weak evidence that the impact of the TFR on farmers direct welfare may be different in rich and poor villages. The argument here is that the log form outcome variables generally exhibit higher statistical significance than the level form and that the log form puts more emphasis on an increase for poorer farmers because the proportional effects are given more weight. Later, we explore this issue further by dividing villages into rich and poor groups based on the levels of net income per villager in year Second, there is strong evidence of significant reductions in many (although not all) categories of public expenditures in treated villages versus matched control villages, consistent with other findings that the introduction of the TFR led to deteriorating village public expenditures in at least some expenditure categories (Zhang et al., 2004; Fork and Wong, 2005; Luo et al., 2007; Meng and Zhang, 2011). For example, total expenditures are significantly lower in treated villages than in matched control villages, and expenditures on our classifications of welfare programs are also generally lower in treated than in matched control villages. In contrast, our classifications of non-welfare expenditures show no statistically significant differences of the reform between treated and matched control villages. Overall, without sufficient compensation from upper-level governments, these results suggest that farmers indirect welfare was reduced by the TFR, where indirect welfare is measured by village government expenditures on welfare-related categories. 20

22 Altogether, we find no evidence supporting the existence of a direct welfare effect of the TFR on improving farmer s net income in rural China. In contrast, the TFR appears to have reduced villages ability to finance expenditures, thereby reducing total public expenditures and especially welfare expenditures on such services such as education, public health, and infrastructure. These latter reductions likely had a significant and negative impact on the indirect welfare of farmers. Robustness Checks: Alternative Propensity Score Matching Estimates How robust are these findings? We use two alternative matching estimates: caliper matching and nearest neighbor matching. As shown in Table 5, the results using either matching method show no statistically significant direct welfare effects of the reform on our two measures of income. As for indirect welfare effects, the results from both matching methods are comparable to our earlier results from the kernel matching estimator, indeed with somewhat larger, negative, and significant level estimates of the reform. Robustness Checks: Regional and Income Specific Effects As further robustness checks, we examine in Table 6 whether the TFR had different effects in different regions. We group the full sample into coastal and inland villages, 18 and we reapply the propensity score matching technique to each village group, using the relevant probit estimates from the earlier Table Similar to the findings in full sample, the results in Table 6 reveal no significant effect of the TFR on farmer s direct welfare. However, reform had significant negative effects on all categories of village government expenditures in inland villages. Most reductions of total expenditures in inland villages occur by cutting expenditures on welfare program. The absolute magnitudes of expenditure reductions for welfare program are much larger than the 21

23 corresponding magnitudes for non-welfare program. In coastal villages, there is no noticeable change in most categories of expenditures (except one measure of expenditures on non-welfare program in log form is significantly positive). These results suggest that the reform had quite different impacts on expenditures in coastal versus inland villages. Since inland provinces are generally underdeveloped regions in China relative to coastal provinces, this finding may imply an especially serious negative effect of the TFR on poor villages. The large decline of revenues after the TFR may have driven the poor villages to cut expenditures both on welfare programs and on non-welfare programs, such as wages and subsidies for village cadres. To explore further the impact of the TFR on poor versus rich villages, we split all villages into income categories based on their net income per capita in year 1998 relative to the mean value of the full sample in 1998; that is, villages with net income per capita less than the sample mean value in year 1998 are defined as poor villages, while villages with greater value than sample mean are grouped as rich villages. Again, we reapply the propensity score matching technique to each village group, using the relevant probit estimates from the earlier Table 3. The result (Table 6) is that the impact of the TFR on farmers welfare is only statistically significant in poor villages, and again only significant for the indirect welfare aspects. Similarly, non-welfare expenditure programs are also reduced significantly in poor villages after the reform, but the reduced magnitude for non-welfare programs is much smaller than for welfare expenditure programs. In contrast, rich villages experienced no significant change in any relevant welfare aspects, direct or indirect Difference-in-difference Matching Estimation Results 22

24 Tables 7 and 8 report results from various DID matching methods and village classifications. As with our propensity score estimation results, we find no significant direct welfare effects in any of the cases: for all estimation methods and all villages (Table 7), for coastal and inland villages (Table 8), or for rich and poor villages (Table 8). Also similar to our earlier results, we find that inland and poor villages generally experienced significant indirect welfare losses from the reform, as indicated by reductions in most aspects of expenditures (Table 8). Indeed, the reductions in welfare expenditures are typically much greater than the reductions in non-welfare expenditures. In contrast, there are no significant changes in rich and coastal villages (Table 8). These results largely confirm our earlier propensity score matching estimates Other Considerations Overall, then, we find robust evidence supporting some previous arguments that the TFR likely worsened farmers welfare in poor villages (Yep, 2004; Kennedy, 2007). To understand more fully our findings, it is important to note that the central issue of rural taxation in China before the reform was the increasingly regressive nature of rural taxes, rather than the increase in the average rural tax rate (Lin and Liu, 2007). Our findings therefore suggest that village expenditures before the TFR in poor villages were mainly financed by taxing villagers through informal taxes and fees, which in turn generated a heavy fiscal burden on (and increased resentment from) those living in these poor villages. Meanwhile, because of a higher level of industrialisation in rich regions, public expenditures in rich regions were financed through taxes from the large non-agricultural tax base that were less regressive in their impact, so that the fiscal burden was not seen as excessive in these regions and also so that rich villages could continue to collect revenues from rural industries and provide local services after the TFR. However, the formalisation of the tax system after the TFR ruled out the possibility of poor villages financing 23

25 their expenditures through imposing informal taxes and fees on villagers, as they had done prior to the reform. In the absence of adequate post-reform transfers from upper-level governments, poor villages were forced to cut back on virtually all categories of public expenditures. 20 In contrast, because rich villages did not depend as heavily on informal taxes and fees for financing public expenditures, their levels of public expenditures did not change significantly after the reform. 21 However, one complicating factor here is the possibility that, following the TFR, upperlevel governments (for the most part county governments) took over themselves sufficient expenditure responsibilities for which village budgets experienced reductions. If county governments responded in this way, then the enactment of the TFR may not necessarily imply a negative impact on farmers welfare, despite the losses from village budgets, because reductions in village government expenditures may have been offset by increases in county government expenditures. Detailed information on the post-tfr responses of upper-level governments is not available. However, as pointed out by the work of Yep (2004), Kennedy (2007), Luo et al. (2007), and Sato (2008a), among others, such a response from upper-level governments seems unlikely, for several reasons. First, there was no explicitly defined change in expenditure assignments from the village level to county governments after the TFR, except for expenditure on primary schools. In 2001, the Central Committee of the Communist Party and the State Council of China introduced a reform of educational finance whereby county governments were required to take over the payments of teachers salaries from village budgets. Nevertheless, the evidence shows that county governments did not cover all education funding at the village level. Since the education 24

26 reform only required that county governments pay for the salaries of full-time primary school teachers, funds for paying village teachers and maintaining school facilities seem likely to have been reduced after the TFR (Yep, 2004). Second, the central government increased its transfer payments to county governments with the hope that they would increase the remittance for township and village governments after the TFR. Unfortunately, as noted earlier, the transfer allocation process at the county level is quite complex, which significantly reduces their effectiveness. Finally, although county budget statistics in documenting the funds allocated to each of the villages in our sample are not available, it happened that the designers of the CHIP questionnaire were explicitly interested in the possibility of changes in county expenditure on welfare-related items at the village level (Sato, 2008a). The CHIP designers asked village cadres for their judgments of the changes in public funding on primary schools after the TFR, in the belief that village cadres might be able to judge the overall financial conditions (including county expenditure and any other transfer payments) of primary schools after the TFR. Our tabulation of this survey question for the treated villages in our sample reveals that only 7.9 per cent of the villages reported an increase in overall public expenditure on primary schools after the TFR, while 49.0 per cent reported a decrease and 43.1 per cent reported no change. This evidence, while not conclusive, suggests that a majority of the treated villages did not obtain sufficient compensation from upper-level governments even for expenditure on primary education where the payment responsibility was clearly shifted after the TFR to upper-level governments; for other expenditure categories, it seems even less likely that county governments compensated for reduced village expenditures. 25

27 For all of these reasons, we believe that our results for the impact of the TFR on farmers welfare seem unlikely to be affected significantly by any post-tfr changes in expenditure assignments between village and county governments. 5. Conclusions We examine in this paper the impact of the TFR in China on farmers direct and indirect welfare, where direct welfare is measured by net income per capita in the village and where indirect welfare is proxied by the composition of public expenditure. Given the non-experimental nature of the dataset we used, we pay particular attention to identify the effect of the reform on farmers welfare by using both a propensity score matching approach and a difference-indifference matching approach. Our results show no evidence that the TFR led to any direct increase in farmers net income, despite this suggestion from some other work (Luo et al., 2007). The exact reasons for this result are not entirely clear, but, as suggested at the beginning of the paper, the answer to this puzzle may stem from the increases in the rate of agricultural taxation after the reform, which adversely affected agricultural production and consequently decreased farmers incomes. Meanwhile, this adverse impact on the agricultural production may also have reduced the role of agricultural taxation in supplementing the revenue loss from the elimination of legal and illegal fees due to the shrinking tax bases. It is thereby unsurprising to observe that, while the elimination of the legal and illegal fees to farmers reduced the revenues of village government and led to a reduction of public services, this elimination did not result in an increase in the net income of the farmers. 22 Another possible answer to the puzzle lies in the fact that the reform may also have resulted in a double burden on farmers; that is, the farmers were not only asked 26