ULOGA SVOP TRANSAKCIJA U BANKARSTVU

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1 stručni prilozi UDK ULOGA SVOP TRANSAKCIJA U BANKARSTVU dr Nataša Kožul nkozul@gmail.com Rezime Svopovi su ugovori između dve strane za razmenu tokova novca različitog porekla na vremenski period od dve do pedeset godina. To su derivatni instrumenti (finansijske hartije od vrednosti čija se vrednost izvodi iz osnovne aktive) koji se koriste za arbitražu, hedžing ili spekulacije. Za razliku od mnogih drugih derivata, svopovima se ne trguje na berzi, već se transaktuju neposredno između partnera ili sa investicionim bankama koje nastupaju kao posrednici. Pošto je njihovo korišćenje u bankarskoj industriji Srbije u začetku, ovaj rad ima za cilj da prezentuje osnovne koncepte svopova, različite vrste ugovora, njihove rizike i benefite, kao i koncepte određivanja cene svopova. Dati su svopovi kamatne stope, valutni, kapitalni i kreditni svopovi prikazivanjem njihove glavne svrhe i vrsta investitora koje privlače. Takođe su uključene i varijante standardnih svop ugovora, kao i posebne opcione karakteristike da bi se kompletirala slika tržišnih trendova koji pristižu u srpski finansijski sektor. bankarstvo -

2 expert contributions UDC ROLE OF SWAPS IN BANKING INDUSTRY Nataša Kožul MSc, PhD Summary Swaps are contracts between two counterparties for exchanging streams of cashflows of different origin for a period of time ranging from two to fi y years. They are derivative instruments (financial securities that derive value from an underlying asset) used for arbitrage, hedging or speculation. Unlike many other derivatives, swaps are not exchange traded, they are transacted directly between the counterparties, or with investment banks acting as intermediaries. As their use is in inception within Serbian Banking Industry, this paper aims to present the fundamental swap concepts, various types of swaps, their risks and benefits as well as swap pricing concepts. Interest rate, currency, equity and credit swaps will be introduced, highlighting their main uses and types of investors they a ract. Furthermore, variations of standard swap contracts as well as special optional features are included in order to complete the picture of the market trends arriving to the Serbian financial markets. bankarstvo -

3 Svopovi su finansijski derivatni instumenti čija se cena izvodi iz vrednosti osnovne aktive - kamatne stope, robe, valute, kreditnog rejtinga itd. To su ugovori za razmenu serija finansijskih transackcija (kupona) tokom vremenskog perioda, sa ili bez razmene glavnice na početku i o dospeću. Trenutno to nisu hartije od vrednosti kojima se trguje na berzi, već se trgovina svopovima obavlja vanberzanski ( over the counter - OTC), neposredno između partnera ili sa investicionim bankama koje nastupaju kao posrednici. Mada je tržište svopova dobro regulisano, odsustvo zvanične berze i s njom povezane klirinške kuće koja preuzima rizik partnera u svakoj trgovini čini svopove vrlo rizičnom klasom finansijskih produkata, jer svaki partner preuzima kreditni rizik onog drugog i može biti izložen znatnim gubicima u slučaju neizvršenja. Uprkos tome, tržište svopova je aktivno i likvidno, što je jasna indikacija popularnosti i korisnosti ove raznovrsne klase derivatnih proizvoda u mnogim primenama. Naredne sekcije će prikazati osnovne koncepte svopova, njihove glavne korisnike, uobičajene namene svopova, koncepte određivanja cene kao i tržišnu i kreditnu izloženost. Osnovne karakteristike svopova Svopovi su OTC proizvodi, specijalno prilagođeni potrebama klijenata; uobičajeni periodi koje pokrivaju su između 2 i 30 godina. To su efektivno serije periodičnih razmena tokova novca (kupona) tokom ugovornog perioda. Dve strane svopa se obično nazivaju komponente. Osnovna hartija od vrednosti na kojoj se baziraju plaćanja komponenti može biti kamatna stopa, valuta, kapital, kapitalni indeks, roba, kreditni rejting, neizvršenje po kreditu ili bilo koja druga referentna aktiva ili subjekt. Otuda su svopovi raznovrsne finansijske strukture, u pogledu ročnosti i pokrivenosti tržišta, što ih čini atraktivnom investicionom strategijom. Ipak, svopovi kamatne stope su daleko najpopularniji i biće fokus ovog rada. Valutni, kapitalni i kreditni svopovi će biti manje detaljno obrađeni. Kod svopova kamatne stope obe komponente su vezane za kamatnu stopu. Tipično su tako strukturirani da je jedna komponenta fiksirana na početku, dok je druga vezana za variablinu kamatnu stopu, koja obično odgovara učestalosti plaćanja po svopu (tj. polugodišnji kuponi su vezani za 6-mesečnu stopu, dok su kvartalna plaćanja vezana za 3- mesečnu stopu). Alternativno, obe komponente svopa mogu biti varijabilne, koristeći razliku između kamatnih stopa za različite ročnosti. Iznos glavnice se može razmeniti na početku i kod dospeća, ili se alternativno redovnim intervalima mogu razmenjivati samo kuponi zasnovani na nominalnom iznosu. U praksi, svopovi kamatne stope kod kojih su obe komponente denominirane u istoj valuti ne uključuju razmenu glavnice, jer bi se u tom slučaju dve komponente neutralizovale. Razmena kupona se takođe sprovodi neto, tj. samo se razlika između dve komponente plaća/prima da bi se minimizirala izloženost kreditnom riziku. Tržište je likvidno, naročito za ugovore kraće ročnosti. Učesnici na tržištu svopova Kao i kod drugih derivatnih proizvoda, učesnici na tržištu svopova se mogu podeliti na tri glavne kategorije: spekulatori, hedžeri i arbitražeri. Spekulatori uzimaju rizične svop pozicije nezavisno od osnovnih instrumenata, tako da mogu da potencijalno spekulišu na vrednosti svih vrsta svopa. Međutim, ako se koristi razmena kupona (fiksni za varijabilni), primalac po fiksnoj komponenti uzima poziciju sa uverenjem da kamatne stope padaju, što mu donosi korist kroz fiksiranje više stope, pri čemu primalac po varijabilnoj komponenti ima suprotno gledište. Pošto nema razmene glavnice i nema plaćanja na početku ugovora u smislu provizija i premija, svop je finansijski vrlo efektivan način da se spekuliše na kratkoročnom ili dugoročnom tržištu derivata kamatne stope. Hedžeri ulaze u svopove da bi fiksirali svoje kreditne troškove. Ako veruju da su kamatne stope u porastu, oni mogu da zaštite svoj kredit po varijabilnoj stopi (obično uz spred iznad reperne stope) ulaskom u svop po kome plaćaju fiksnu stopu a primaju varijabilnu. Neto trošak njihovog kredita tako postaje fiksna stopa + spred, jer se varijabilno plaćanje po svopu i bankarstvo -

4 bankarstvo - Swaps are financial derivative instruments, whereby their value is derived from the value of an underlying asset interest rate, commodity, currency, credit rating etc. They are contracts for exchange of series of regular payments (coupons) over a period of time with or without exchange of principal at inception and maturity. At present they are not exchange traded securities; swap trades are conducted over the counter (OTC), either directly between the counterparties, or with investment banks acting as intermediaries. Even though the swap market is well regulated, the absence of the official exchange and the associated clearing house that take on counterparty risk of every trade makes swaps a very risky class of products, as each counterparty takes on the credit risk of another and can be exposed to substantial losses in an even of default. Nevertheless, swap market is active and liquid, a clear indication of the popularity and usefulness of this versatile class of derivative products in many applications. The following sections will introduce fundamental swap concepts, their main users, typical swap applications, pricing concepts as well as market and credit risk exposure. Swap Fundamentals Swaps are OTC products, specifically tailored to customer needs, but typical periods they cover range from 2 to 30 years. They are effectively series of cashflow (coupon) exchanges over a period of time. The two sides of the swap are commonly referred to as legs. The underlying security on which leg payments are based can be interest rate, currency, equity, equity index, commodity, credit rating, credit default or any other reference asset or entity. Hence swaps are versatile financial structures, both in terms of maturity and market coverage, making them a ractive investment prospects. Nevertheless, interest rate swaps are by far most popular type of trades and will be the focus of this paper. Currency, equity and credit default swaps will also be covered, albeit in less detail. Interest rate swaps have both legs liked to interest rate. They are typically structured so that one leg is fixed at inception, whilst the other is liked to a benchmark interest rate, typically corresponding to the swap payment frequency (i.e. semi-annual coupons are linked to 6-month rate, whilst quarterly payments are liked to 3-month rate). Alternatively, both swap legs can be floating, exploiting the differential between the market rates for different tenors. The principal amount may be exchanged at inception and maturity, or alternatively only coupons based on a notional amount are exchanged at regular intervals. In practice, interest rate swaps where both legs are in the denominated in the same currency do not involve principal exchange, as the net effect would be zero. The exchange of coupons is also ne ed, i.e. only the difference between the two legs is paid/received to minimize credit risk exposure. The market is liquid, particularly for shorter contracts. Swap Market Participants As in other derivative products, the swap market participants can be split into three main categories: speculators, hedgers and arbitrageurs. Speculators take risky swap positions independent of any underlying instruments, hence they can take a view on any type of swap. However, if a coupon swap (fixed vs. floating) is used, the receiver of the fixed leg takes the position with the view that interest rates are on the decline, thus benefiting by locking in the higher rate; whereas the receiver of the floating leg takes on the opposite view. Since there is no principal exchange and no payments at the outset in terms of fees and premiums, swap is a very cost-effective way to speculate in either short- or a long-term interest rate derivatives market. Hedgers enter into swaps to fix their borrowing cost. If they believe that the interest rates will rise, they can protect their floating rate borrowing (typically at spread over a benchmark rate) by entering into a swap, whereby they pay fixed rate and receive floating. The net cost of their borrowing thus becomes fixed rate + spread, as the floating payment under the swap and the loan repayment cancel out. For example: A client has invested in a fixed rate bonds,

5 otplata kredita poništavaju. Na primer: Klijent je investirao u obveznice sa fiksnom stopom, tako da prima fiksni polugodišnji kupon. Međutim, njegove obaveze nastaju po osnovu kredita uz varijabilnu stopu, čime je izložen riziku fluktuacija varijabilne stope. Da bi zaštitio poziciju na koju nepovoljno utiče rast kamatne stope, razmena kupona se može koristiti za hedžing, kako je niže prikazano. Slika 1. Primer korišćenja svopa za izjednačenje aktive i pasive kredit neto efekat investiranje Klijent reperna stopa + 0,3% reperna stopa plaćanja po svopu Partner u svopu Arbitražeri koriste svopove da bi imali benefit od relativne prednosti koju pružaju različiti metodi finansiranja. Ako dva partnera imaju pristup fiksnim i varijabilnim tržištima, ali jedan partner ima relativnu prednost na jednom tržištu u odnosu na drugo, oni mogu da uđu u svop uz obostranu korist. Ovo se najbolje iskazuje kroz sledeći primer: Kompanija A traži kredit po varijabilnoj stopi i ima pristup sredstvima po fiksnoj stopi od 5% ili po repernoj varijabilnoj stopi (u daljem tekstu: F) + 0,3%. Kompanija B traži kredit po fiksnoj stopi i ima pristup sredstvima po fiksnoj stopi od 6% ili po F + 0,9%. Da nema svopa kao mogućnosti, oni bi pribegli dolaženju do sredstava na svojim odabranim tržištima. Međutim, svop nudi potencijal za povoljnije finansiranje oba partnera. Jasno je da kompanija A ima bolji kreditni rejting koji se odražava na povoljnije stope na oba tržišta. Otuda, da bi se razumela njihova motivacija za takvu transakciju daje se pregled stopa: Tabela 1. Komparativna prednost stope za kredit na fiksnom i varijabilnom tržištu Partner Fiksna stopa Varijabilna stopa Kompanija A 5% F + 0.3% Kompanija B 6% F + 0.9% Komparativna prednost 1% 0.6% Jasno je da kompanija A ima veću prednost nad kompanijom B na tržištu sa fiksnom stopom u odnosu na varijabilno. Apsolutna prednost - razlika između komparativnih vrednosti na oba tržišta, tj. 1% - 0,6% = 0,4% - predstavlja uštedu na troškovima kredita koja je na raspolaganju za podelu između dva partnera. Da bi koristila ovu nejednakost u finansiranju, kompanija A će se zadužiti na tržištu gde ima najveću prednost, tj. po fiksnoj stopi od 5%, iako joj zapravo treba finansiranje po varijabilnoj stopi; dok će kompanija B da se zaduži po stopi od F + 0,9% da bi se omogućila realizacija svopa. Ako se svop konstruiše tako da podjednako koristi obema kompanijama, kompanija A plaća F + 0,1% i prima 5%, dok kompanija B plaća 5% i prima F + 0,1% sa neto efektom: kompanija A plaća F + 0,1% (0,2% poboljšanje u odnosu na originalnu stopu) kompanija B plaća 5,8% (0,2% poboljšanje u odnosu na originalnu stopu) Ovo je grafički predstavljeno na sledećoj slici: Slika 2 Korišćenje komparativne prednosti kamatne stope putem kuponskog svopa kredit neto efekat plaćanja po svopu kredit neto efekat U praksi kompanija A bi koristila prednost povoljnijeg kreditnog stendinga uzimanjem većeg dela raspoložive uštede. Pored toga, investiciona banka bi obično imala svojstvo posrednika i ona bi uzela deo profita kao proviziju, prosleđujući partnerima razliku. Važno je napomenuti da u takvom scenariju profit koja banka uzima nije besplatan novac, jer banka često nastupa kao garant transakcije za oba partnera, uzimajući na taj način kreditni rizik koja nastaje iz obe komponente svopa. Ovo nije beznačajan aspekat, jer u slučaju neizvršenja bilo kog partnera, banka mora da pokrije gubitke, koji mogu biti znatni naročito ako je u ugovor uključena razmena glavnice. bankarstvo -

6 bankarstvo - thus receiving a fixed coupon semi-annually. However, his liabilities arise from floating rate borrowing, whereby he is exposed the risk of floating rate fluctuations. To mitigate the position unfavourably affected by the interest rate rise, a coupon swap can be used as a hedge, as shown below. Figure 1. Example of using swap for equating assets and liabilities Arbitrageurs use swaps to benefit from the relative advantage afforded by different funding methods. If two counterparties have access to both fixed and floating markets, but one counterparty has relative advantage in one market over the other, they can enter into a swap at mutual advantage. This is best shown on an example: A company A requires floating rate borrowing and has access to funds at either 5% fixed rate, or Benchmark floating rate (further denoted as F) + 0.3%. A company B requires fixed rate borrowing and has access to funds at either 6% fixed rate, or F + 0.9%. Without the option of a swap, they would resort to accessing funds in their preferred markets. However, a swap offers a potential for reduced funding for both counterparties. Clearly company A has be er credit rating, reflected in more favourable rates in both markets. Hence, to understand their motivation for such a transaction the rates are summarized below: Table 1. Comparative borrowing rate advantage in fixed and floating markets Counterparty Fixed rate Floating rate Company A 5% F + 0.3% Company B 6% F + 0.9% Comparative Advantage 1% 0.6% Clearly the company A has bigger advantage over company B in the fixed rate market than in the floating. The absolute advantage the difference between comparative values in both markets, i.e. 1% - 0.6% = 0.4% is the saving in funding costs available for sharing between the two counterparties. To exploit this advantage, the company A will borrow in the market where it has most advantage, i.e. at 5% fixed rate, even though it actually requires floating rate funding; whilst the company B will borrow at F + 0.9% to enable the swap to proceed. If the swap is constructed to benefit both companies equally, the company A pays F + 0.1% and receives 5%, whilst the company B pays 5% and receives F + 0.1% with the net effect: Company A pays F + 0.1% (0.2% improvement on the original rate) Company B pays 5.8% (0.2% improvement on the original rate) This is graphically represented in the figure below: Figure 2 Exploiting comparative borrowing rate advantage using coupon swap In practice the company A would take advantage of the more favourable credit standing by taking a larger share of the available saving. In addition, an investment bank would typically act as an intermediary, taking a cut of the profit as a fee and then passing on the difference to the counterparties. It is important to note that is such a scenario, the profit the bank takes is not simply free money, as the bank o en acts as a transaction guarantor to both counterparties, thus effectively taking on credit exposure arising from both swap legs. This is not insignificant aspect, as in the event of default of either counterparty, the bank has to cover the losses, which can be substantial particularly when exchange of principals is involved.

7 Navedeni svop koji obuhvata razmenu fiksnog kupona i varijabilnu stopu najjednostavnija je i najčešća vrsta svopa kamatne stope. Često se naziva vanila svop. Druge česte varijante se daju u nastavku, dok se svopovi sa različitim osnovnim hartijama od vrednosti prikazuju u kasnijim sekcijama. Vrste svopova kamatne stope Svop aktive Izraz svop aktive je unekoliko netačan, jer se u stvari odnosi na razmenu fiksnih i varijabilnih tokova novca. Otuda, gornji primer takođe spada u ovu kategoriju. Međutim, obično se svop aktive ne bi primenio za korišćenje komparativne prednosti (jer možda i ne postoji na tržištu), već za konverziju tokova novca iz fiksnog u varijabilni ili obrnuto, zavisno od potreba. Često klijenti žele da plaćaju po fiksnoj stopi neto (da bi se zaštitili od troškova zaduženja) i ušli bi u svop po kome plaćaju fiksnu stopu a primaju varijabilnu. Obe komponente svopa obično imaju istu učestalost plaćanja (na pr. tri meseca) i osnovna varijabilna stopa je jednaka periodu plaćanja (na pr. varijabilna komponenta svopa se kvartalno utvrđuje na osnovu tromesečne reperne kamatne stope na spotu). Motivacija za uzimanje obrnute pozicije u svopu je u gledištu da su stope u porastu. Otuda klijent koji prima fiksni prihod može da uđe u svop da bi koristio ovo povećanje bez menjanja investicione strategije, kao što se vidi ovde: Slika 3 Grafički prikaz svopa aktive prima fiksni prihod investitor prima varijabilnu stopu plaća fiksnu svop stopu plaćanja po svopu banka Osnovni svop Osnovni svop se odnosi na transakciju motivisanu željom da se aktiva i pasiva podvedu pod isti imenitelj. Partneri koji imaju obaveze plaćanja po varijabilnoj kamatnoj stopi, ali primaju sredstva u istoj valuti po drugoj stopi mogu da uđu u osnovni svop da bi neutralisali svoju osnovnu izloženost (kamatni diferencijal). Na primer, prestižna banka koja prima plaćanja po hipotekarnim kreditima na mesečnoj osnovi, ali ima dugove po kojima plaća po 3-mesečnoj repernoj stopi, imala bi koristi od stavljanja svoje aktive i pasive pod isti imenitelj (osnovu). Ovo bi se postiglo ulaskom u svop po kome banka plaća 1-mesečnu varijabilnu stopu i prima 3-mesečnu stopu, neutrališući osnovnu izloženost. Ovde takođe može biti potencijala za postizanje ukupno povoljnije stope, zavisno od kreditnog rejtinga i tržišnih uslova. U praksi, suprotno će biti verovatnije. Osnovni svopovi su vrlo traženi produkti, tako da bi banka mogla da naplaćuje spred iznad komponente po kojoj klijent plaća. Druge vrste svopova Svop konstantnog dospeća (CMS) Svopovi kamatne stope, kako je napred navedeno, obično obuhvataju razmenu stopa sa rokovima jednakim frekvenciji kupona. Nasuprot tome, jedna komponenta po CMS je vezana za dugoročnu stopu (stopu svopa ili kupon obveznice) konstantnog dospeća, odakle potiče i naziv. Druga komponenta može biti fiksna ili varijabilna i data na standardni način. Dugoročna stopa može biti modelirana korišćenjem državnih obveznica (kao relativno nerizičnih), ili se kod pojačanih kreditnih izloženosti mogu koristiti druge vrste obveznica. Moguće je plaćanja po CMS vezati za dugoročnu (na pr. desetogodišnju) stopu svopa, pri čemu se kod svakog resetovanja kupon po CMS komponenti izjednačava sa tekućom 10-godišnjom stopom svopa. Korisnici CMS svopova efektivno stvaraju sintetičku izloženost na osnovnom tržištu (na pr. obveznica) bez stvarnog učešća na njemu. Dalje, putem dugoročnih svop stopa koristi se odnos između kratkoročnih i dugoročnih kamatnih stopa, od koristi za praktičare sa definitivnim gledištem o razvoju krive prinosa. Svop indeksa maloprodajnih cena (RPI) Ova vrsta svopa, kao i prethodni primer, stukturirana je tako da inkorporiše plaćanja po kuponu zasnovana na različitom reperu od važeće kamatne stope. U ovom slučaju, indeks maloprodajnih cena (indeks cena potrošačke korpe) koristi se kao referenca za jednu komponentu svopa, dok je druga strukturisana bankarstvo -

8 bankarstvo - The above swap involving the exchange of fixed coupon vs. floating rate is the simplest and the most common type of interest rate swap. It is o en referred to as vanilla swap. Other most common varieties are discussed below, whilst swaps with different underlying securities are presented in the later sections. Types of Interest rate Swaps Asset swap The term asset swap is a bit of a misnomer, as it actually refers to the exchange of fixed vs. floating cashflows. Hence, the above example also falls under this category. However, typically an asset swap would not be used for exploitation of comparative advantage (as there may be none), but instead to convert a stream of cashflows from fixed to floating or vice versa, depending on the requirements. Clients o en wish to be net payers of fixed rate (to protect the borrowing costs) and would enter into a swap whereby they pay fixed rate and receive floating. The two swap legs typically have the same payment frequency (e.g. three months) and the underlying floating rate is equal to the payment period (e.g. the floating swap leg is fixed quarterly against the spot 3-month benchmark interest rate). The motivation for taking the opposite side of the swap is clearly the view that the rates are on the rise. Hence a client receiving fixed rate income, could enter into a swap to benefit from this increase, without changing the investment strategy, as shown below: Figure 3 Graphical representation of asset swap Basis swap Basis swap refers to a transaction motivated by the desire to bring the assets and liabilities under the same denominator. Counterparties who have payment obligations based on one floating interest rate, but receive funds in the same currency based on another rate may enter into a basis swap to neutralize their basis (rate differential) exposure. For example, a highstreet bank that receives mortgage payments on monthly basis, but has outstanding debts incurring payments based on 3-month benchmark rate would benefit from bringing their assets and liabilities under the same denominator (basis). This would be achieved by entering into a swap where the bank is the payer of 1-month floating rate and the receiver of 3-month rate, thus neutralising the basis exposure. There could also be a potential of achieving an overall be er rate, subject to credit rating and market conditions. In practice, the opposite is more likely to be true. Basis swaps are very sought a er by the clients, thus the bank would charge spread over the leg that the client pays. Other Swap Types Constant Maturity Swap (CMS) Interest rate swaps, as stated above, typically involve exchange of rates with tenors equal to the coupon frequency. In contrast, one of the legs under CMS is linked to a long-term rate (swap rate or a bond coupon) of constant maturity, hence the name. The second leg can be fixed or floating and is designed in the standard way. Long-term rate can be modelled using government bonds (as a relatively riskless option); or for enhanced credit exposure, other types of bonds can be used. It is possible to link the CMS payments to a long-term (e.g. 10 year) swap rate, whereby at each reset the coupon under the CMS leg is equated to the current market 10-year swap rate. The users of CMS swaps effectively create synthetic exposure in the underlying market (e.g. bond) without actually actively participating in it. Furthermore, using the long-term swap rates exploits the relationship between the short and long term interest rates, useful for market practitioners with definite views on the evolvement of the yield curve. Retail price Index (RPI) Swap This type of swap, as above, is structured to incorporate the coupon payments based on a different benchmark to the prevailing interest rate. In this case, retail price index (price index of the basket of commonly purchased consumer goods) is used as a reference for one

9 na uobičajen način, tako da može biti fiksna ili varijabilna. Jasno je da RPI predstavlja indikaciju inflacije u određenoj zemlji, tako da su RPI svopovi vezani za inflacione krive i cena im se utvrđuje korišćenjem indeksa inflacije. To su korisni strateški instrumenti za menadžere investicionih i penzionih fondova koji imaju obavezu da svoje isplate povezuju sa inflacijom. Slika 4 Grafički prikaz dugoročnog valutnog svopa EUR kamata SRD kamata periodična svop plaćanja SRD glavnica Valutni svop Valutni svop se takođe odnosi na razmenu plaćanja između dva partnera. Međutim, za razliku od svopova kamatne stope, ovi tokovi novca su u različitim valutama, s tim što je jedna valuta određena kao bazna a druga kao varijabilna valuta. Otuda, pored izloženosti deviznom kursu, njih implicitno pogađaju fluktuacije kamatne stope u različitim zemljama. Iz ovog razloga, valutni svopovi obično obuhvataju razmenu glavnica. Ugovori su tako strukturirani da je iznos bazne valute isti kod nastanka i kod dospeća, dok je komponenta u varijabilnoj valuti zavisna od spot i terminskih kurseva na početku ugovora. Valutni svopovi mogu biti: fiksni-fiksni, gde se po obe komponente plaća fiksna kamatna stopa u valuti na koju su denominirane fiksni-varijabilni, gde je jedna komponenta zasnovana na fiksnoj stopi a druga na varijabilnoj stopi u odgovarajućoj valuti varijabilni-varijabilni, obe kamatne stope su varijabilne Druga važna podela valutnih svopova je po ročnosti. Kratkoročni valutni svopovi (obično do jedne godine) obuhvataju samo razmenu glavnice (tj. nema kuponskih plaćanja), implicitno izlažući partnere deviznom kursu i kamatnoj stopi putem terminskog kursa na kome je zasnovan konačni iznos glavnice. Dugoročni valutni svopovi, s druge strane, obično su strukturirani tako da obuhvataju razmenu redovnih kuponskih plaćanja i glavnice o dospeću. (razmena na početku je stvar izbora). Primer dugoročnog valutnog svopa prikazan je kako sledi: EUR glavnica plaćanja svopa o dospeću Svop kapitalnog indeksa Svop kapitalnog indeksa je ugovor između dve strane za razmenu tokova novca u redovnim intervalima tokom trajanja ugovora, gde je jedna komponenta zasnovana na procentu promene vrednosti odabranog kapitalnog indeksa. Druga komponenta, ako nije izvedena iz drugog indeksa vrednosti akcija, obično se vezuje za repernu varijabilnu kamatnu stopu iste ročnosti kao što je učestalost razmene kupona. Pošto je kapitalni indeks fiktivni portfolio akcija javnih kompanija, on nije utrživa aktiva. Otuda se plaćanja po svopu vezuju za nominalnu glavnicu i izvršavaju novčano. Nominalna glavnica se zasniva na monetarnoj vrednosti indeksa akcija, izvedenoj kao proizvod nivoa indeksa i indeksnog multiplikatora (monetarnog iznosa indeksnog poena, utvrđenog od strane relevantne berze akcija). Ključna razlika između svopova kamatne stope i kapitalnih svopova je u tome što plaćanja po različitim komponentama ne mogu da se prebijaju, jer su vezana za različite osnovne varijable. Tako, jedan partner uvek plaća po varijabilnoj stopi, dok drugi plaća ukupan prihod na investiranje u kapital (kapitalnu aprecijaciju i dividende). Važna implikacija je da ako tržište kapitala pada, platac po varijabilnoj komponenti odgovara za plaćanje po varijabilnoj komponenti kao i za deprecijaciju akcionarskog kapitala. Primer za svop kapitalnog indeksa je sledeći: bankarstvo -

10 swap leg, whilst the other is structured in the usual way, thus can be fixed or floating. Clearly RPI is an indication of inflation in a particular country, thus RPI swaps are linked to inflation curves and priced using inflation indices. They are useful tools for fund managers and pension funds that are obliged to link their payments to the inflation. Figure 4 Graphical representation of long-term currency swap bankarstvo - Currency swap Currency swap refers to an exchange of payments between two counterparties. However, unlike interest rate swaps, these cashflows are in different currencies, where one currency is a designated base currency and the other a variable currency. Hence in addition to exchange rate exposure, they are implicitly affected by interest rate fluctuations in different countries. For this reason, currency swaps typically involve exchange of principals. The contracts are structured so that the amount of base currency is the same at inception and maturity, whilst the variable currency leg is subject to spot and forward exchange rates at the inception. Currency swaps are can be fixed-fixed, where both legs pay fixed interest rate in the currency they are denominated in fixed-floating, where one leg is based on a fixed rate and another on floating rate in corresponding currencies floating - floating, where both interest rates are floating Another important classification of currency swaps is by maturity. Short-term currency swaps (typically under one year) involve exchange of principals only (i.e. no coupon payments), implicitly exposing the counterparties to both exchange rate and interest rates via the forward exchange rate on which the final principal amount is based. Long-term currency swaps, on the other hand, are typically structured to involve regular coupon payments and the principal exchange at maturity (exchange at inception is optional). An example of a longterm currency swap is show below: Equity index swap Equity index swap is a contract between two counterparties to exchange cashflows at regular intervals during the contract period, where at least one leg is based on a percentage change in the value of a chosen equity index. The second leg, if not derived from another stock index value, is typically related to a benchmark floating interest rate of the same tenor as the swap coupon frequency. As equity index is a fictive portfolio of stocks (shares) in public companies, it is not a tradable asset. Hence the swap payments are referenced to a notional principal and are cash-se led. The notional amount is based on the monetary value of the stock index, derived as a product of the index level and index multiplier (monetary amount of the index point, as determined by the relevant stock exchange). A crucial difference between the interest rate swaps and equity swaps is that the payments under different legs cannot be ne ed, as they are linked to different underlying variables. Thus, one counterparty always pays a floating rate, whilst the other pays total return on an equity investment (capital appreciation and dividends). The important implication is that should the equity market decline, the payer of the floating leg is responsible for both the floating leg payments and the equity capital depreciation. An example of equity index swap is shown below:

11 Slika 5 Grafički prikaz svopa kapitalnog indeksa varijabilna kamatna stopa Investitor % promene kapitalnog indeksa Banka plaćanja po svopu stopa). Alternativno, investitor koji nema pristup određenom tržištu (na pr. strano ili domaće tržište hipoteka) može da koristi ovu vrstu svopa da bi generisao sintetičku izloženost (kako je opisano gore). Svopovi kapitalnog indeksa su vrlo korisni finansijski istrumenti za učesnike na tržištu koji nalaze da je nepraktično ili nemoguće da trguju kapitalom neposredno. Za primaoca po komponenti svopa vezanoj za indeks, oni stvaraju sintetičko investiranje na tržištu kapitala jer razmena kamatnih tokova novca za praćenje indeksa stvara izloženost tržištu akcija bez stvarne obaveze da se kupuju akcije. Alternativno, za primaoca po varijabilnoj komponenti oni omogućavaju jačanje prihoda, koji obično koriste menadžeri fondova kada drže akcije za koje veruju da će deprecirati, tako da zamenjuju kapitalni indeks za varijabilnu kamatnu stopu ili drugu vrstu novčanog toka. Izloženost stranom indeksu koja inače može biti nedozvoljena takođe se može generisati sintetičkim putem zamene kretanja domaćeg indeksa za fluktuacije stranog indeksa. Svop podržan aktivom Svop podržan aktivom je izraz koji se koristi za opis razmene tokova novca gde jedna komponenta izvodi svoja plaćanja iz vrednosti neke aktive (obveznice, kredita, pula hipotekarnog kredita, itd.). Teže je predvideti njegove projektovane tokove novca zbog kompleksnosti osnovnog tržišta na kome se trguje aktivom. Na primer, svop kod koga je varijabilna reperna stopa zamenjena za kuponska plaćanja po obveznici zavisiće od performanse tržišta obveznicama kao celine, kreditnog rejtinga emitenta obveznice, dodatnih karakteristika same obveznice (kao postojanje opcije ranije otplate, konverzije u akcije kompanije, itd.). Otuda će valorizovanje svopa biti zaista kompleksno (o ovome više u daljem tekstu). Međutim osnovna motivacija za svop aktive je želja za izloženošću drugom tržišnom sektoru. Emitent obveznice koji veruje da su tržišne stope u padu, ušao bi u svop u kome je on primalac fiksne stope (koja se može preneti na imaoce obveznica) a plaća varijabilnu stopu (imajući korist na taj način od pada kamatnih Svop kreditnog neizvršenja Svop kreditnog neizvršenja (CDS) je trenutno najtraženiji kreditni derivatni instrument. To je ugovor između kupca zaštite i prodavca zaštite za razmenu tokova novca u slučaju kreditnog događaja povezanog sa dužničkim obavezama treće strane ili aktive, a ne partnera u samoj svop transakciji. Po CDS ugovoru, kupac zaštite plaća fiksnu proviziju u redovnim intervalima prodavcu zaštite u zamenu za moguće plaćanje od strane prodavca kod nastupanja kreditnog događaja koji pogađa obaveze treće strane specificirane u transakciji. Kreditni događaji relevantni za transakciju precizno su definisani i obično su neizvršenje obaveza plaćanja ili drugi kreditni događaj, uključujući degradiranje kredita ili stečaj. Ako kreditni događaj nastupi, moguće plaćanje dospeva. Ono se obično izvršava novcem, tako što se plati razlika između pune nominalne vrednosti osnovne obaveze i njene tekuće vrednosti. Alternativno, osnovna aktiva se može isporučiti u zamenu za njenu nominalnu vrednost (mada je njena vrednost umanjena zbog kreditnog događaja). Tržište kreditnih derivata je sektor koji ubrzano raste, sa mnogim varijacijama na navedenu temu, kreiranim kao odgovor specifičnim potrebama klijenata. Neki primeri popularnih proizvoda povezanih sa kreditima su: Svop ukupnog povraćaja Svop kreditnog neizvršenja konstantne ročnosti (CMCDS) Svop uslovnog kreditnog neizvršenja Svop dinamičkog kreditnog neizvršenja Svop prioritetnog kreditnog neizvršenja Svop kreditnog neizvršenja portfolija Svop kreditnog neizvršenja garantovanog kredita Svop kreditnog neizvršenja kod hartija od vrednosti podržanih aktivom bankarstvo -

12 Figure 5 Graphical representation of equity index swap or domestic mortgage market) can use this type of swap to generate a synthetic exposure (as described above). bankarstvo - Equity index swaps are very useful investment tools for market participants that find it impractical or impossible to trade equities directly. For the receiver of indexlinked swap leg, they create synthetic stock market investment, as the exchange of interest rate cashflows for index-tracking creates stock market exposure without actually having to buy stocks. Alternatively, for the receiver of the floating leg they provide income enhancement, typically exploited by fund managers who hold equities they believe will depreciate, thus they swap equity index into a floating interest rate or other type of cashflow. Exposure to foreign index that otherwise may not be permissible can also be synthetically generated by a swap of domestic index movements for foreign index fluctuations. Asset-backed swap Asset-backed swap is the term used to describe the exchange of cashflows where at least on leg derives its payments from the value of an asset (a bond, loan, pool of mortgages etc.). It is harder to predict its projected cashflows due to the complexity of the underlying market the asset is traded in. For example, a swap where a floating benchmark rate is exchanged for bond coupon payments will be subject to the performance of the bond market as a whole, credit rating of the bond issuer, additional features of the particular bond (such as option of early redemption, conversion into company shares etc.). Hence swap valuation will indeed be complex (this will be addressed later). However the fundamental motivation behind the asset swap is a desire for exposure in a different market sector. A bond issuer who believes that the market rates are on the decline would enter into a swap whereby he/she is the receiver of the fixed rate (that can be passed on to the bond holders) and pays the variable rate (thus benefiting from the decrease in interest rates). Alternatively, an investor who is unable to access a particular market (e.g. foreign Credit Default Swap Credit default swap (CDS) is the most traded credit derivative instrument. It is a contract between a protection buyer and a protection seller to exchange cashflows in case of a credit event associated with debt obligations of a third party or an asset, rather than the counterparty to the swap transaction it self. Under the CDS contract, the protection buyer pays a fixed fee at regular intervals to the protection seller in return for a contingent payment by the seller upon a credit event affecting the obligations of the third party specified in the transaction. The credit events relevant to the transaction are precisely defined and are typically a failure to fulfil payment obligations or any other credit event including credit downgrade or bankruptcy. If the credit event occurs the contingent payment is due. It is typically cash-se led, whereby the difference between the full face value of the underlying obligation and its current value is paid. Alternatively, the underlying asset can be delivered in exchange for its face value (even though its value is reduced due to the credit event). Credit derivatives market is a fast-growing sector with many variations on the above theme, created to meet specific client needs. Some examples of popular credit-linked products are: Total Return Swap Constant Maturity Credit Default Swap (CMCDS) Contingent Credit Default Swap Dynamic Credit Default Swap First to Default Credit Default Swap Portfolio Credit Default Swap Secured Loan Credit Default Swap Credit Default Swap on Asset Backed Securities Other Special Swap Features Amortizing Swap Amortizing swap is a variation of a standard swap structure whereby the notional amount on which the coupon payments are based is

13 Druge specijalne karakteristike svopa kamatni svopovi inkorporišu ovu karakteristiku ako to klijent zahteva. Amortizujući svop Amortizujući svop je varijacija standardne strukture svopa gde se uslovni iznos na kome su zasnovana plaćanja po kuponu amorizuje vremenom. To je odlična strategija hedžinga za klijente čija se glavnica duga vremenom otplaćuje (amortizuje) - kao što je hipotekarna obaveza - otuda se potreban iznos zaštite kamatne stope saglasno umanjuje. Svaki svop može da se strukturira da bi bio amortizujući. Stalni svop Stalni svop je suprotan gore navedenom. Po ugovoru samo se kuponska plaćanja zasnovana na uslovnom iznosu zamenjuju periodično na nedefinisani rok, bez razmene glavnice ili datuma dospeća. Koriste ga penzioni fondovi koji imaju mesečne odlive bez precizne informacije o periodima plaćanja ili potreba za glavnicom. Svop sa terminskim početkom Svop sa terminskim početkom jednostavno je svop koji počinje nekog datuma u budućnosti. Svaka vrsta svopa može da se strukturira da počne terminski. Uobičajeni korisnici su investitori i zajmporimci kojima će biti potrebna, ili će imati sredstva raspoloživa, na određeni datum u budućnosti, a izloženost kamatnim stopama (ili drugoj aktivi) trajaće tokom dugog vremenskog perioda. Svop sa odloženim resetovanjem Po uobičajenim specifikacijama u ugovoru o svopu, kuponi po svopu se plaćaju periodično, a stopa se određuje na početku perioda i plaća na kraju. Ovo je u skladu sa zaduživanjem ili investiranjem, gde se kamata na kredit ili depozit plaća na kraju određenog perioda. Nasuprot tome, nivoi kupona po svopu sa odloženim resetovanjem (poznat i kao zakasnelo resetovanje) određuju se prema fiksnim tržišnim stopama samo nekoliko dana pre dospeća plaćanja, što donosi korist investitorima koji imaju definisan sud o kratkoročnim fluktuacijama kamatnih stopa. Svaka vrsta svopa može da se strukturira da bude resetovana unazad, ali najčešće vanila Drugi proizvodi sa inkorporisanim svopovima Svopovi su svestrani i troškovno efektivni derivatni proizvodi. Oni obično ne obuhvataju razmenu glavnice, nemaju proviziju ili troškove držanja, tako da su atraktivni za investitore u širokom spektru scenarija. Međutim svopovi mogu da imaju ročnost do 50 godina i nekad ovo može da bude teret za investitora koji nije siguran u pogledu buduće finansijske situacije. Otuda su investitoru na rapolaganju drugi raznovrsni alternativni proizvodi koji uključuju svopove. Najčešći primeri su prikazani u nastavku. Caps Caps su serija opcija za fiksiranje maksimalnog nivoa varijabilnog svop kupona kod svakog datuma resetovanja na specifični nivo dogovoren danas. Investitori nesigurni u pogledu budućeg kretanja kamatnih stopa ne bi bili voljni da uđu u svop po kome primaju varijabilnu stopu a plaćaju fiksnu, u slučaju pada stopa. Međutim, svojstvo platca varijabilne stope izlaže ih budućem povećanju stope. Caps su idealan izbor u ovakvom scenariju, pružajući opciju da se fiksira plafon varijabilne stope kod svakog datuma za resetovanje, omogućavajući na taj način korist od tržista sa niskom kamatnom stopom uz ograničavanje izloženosti povećanju kamatne stope. Floors Slično gore navedenom, floors predstavljaju seriju opcija za fiksiranje minimalnog nivoa varijabilnog svop kupona kod svakog datuma resetovanja na specifični nivo dogovoren danas. Investitori nesigurni u pogledu budućeg kretanja kamatnih stopa imaju korist od korišćenja floors tako što primaju varijabilnu stopu (sa minimumom koji određuje floor na samom početku) i plaćaju fiksnu stopu. Ovo omogućava da se opcija napusti ako se stope povećaju, dok pružaju minimum prilivnog toka novca u slučaju da tržište krene naniže. bankarstvo -

14 bankarstvo - amortized over time. It is an excellent hedging strategy for clients whose borrowing principal amount is repaid over time (amortized) such as mortgage obligations hence the required amount of interest rate protection reduces accordingly. Any swap can be structured to be amortising. Perpetual Swap Perpetual swap is a opposite from the above. Under the contract only the coupon payments based on a notional amount are exchanged periodically for an indefinite period of time, without exchange of principal or maturity date. It is used by pension funds that have monthly outgoings without the knowledge of the payment period or the need for the principal. Forward-Starting Swap Forward-starting swap is simply a swap that commences at some date in the future. Any type of swap can be structured to start forward. The typical users are investor and borrowers that will require or will have funds available at a specific date in the future and the exposure to interest rates (or any other asset) will last over a long period of time. Delayed Reset Swap Under the typical swap contract specifications, swap coupons are paid periodically; the rate is set at the start of the period and is payable at the end. This is in line with borrowing or investments, whereby the interest on a loan or deposit is payable at the end of a specific period. In contrast, coupon levels under the delayed reset swap (also known as reset in arrears) are fixed to the prevailing market rates only a few days before the payments are due, hence benefiting the investors who have definite views of the short term fluctuations in interest rates. Any type of swap can be structured to be reset in arrears, but most commonly vanilla interest rate swaps incorporate this feature if requested by the client. Other Products Incorporating Swaps Swaps are versatile and cost-effective derivative products. They typically do not involve exchange of principal, there is no fee requirement or cost of carry, thus the investors find them a ractive in a wide range of scenarios. However, swaps can have maturities of up to 50 years and sometimes this can be a burden to an investor who is unsure about the future financial situation. Hence various alternative investment options involving swaps are on investor s disposal. Most common examples are briefly addressed below: Caps Caps are a series of options to fix the maximum level of the swap floating coupon at each reset date to a specific level agreed today. Investors unsure about the future evolvement of interest rates would be unwilling to enter into a swap where they receive floating rate and pay fixed, in case the rates decrease. However, being a payer of the floating rate exposes them to the future rate increase. Caps cater for this scenario by providing an option to fix the ceiling on the floating rate at each reset date; thus allowing for the benefit of the lower interest rate environment, whilst limiting the exposure to the rate increase. Floors Akin to above, floors are a series of options to fix the minimum level of the swap floating coupon at each reset date to a specific level agreed today. Investors unsure about the future evolvement of interest rates benefit from using floors by being the receivers of the floating rate (with the minimum set by the floor at inception) and the payers of fixed rate. This allows for the option to be abandoned if the rates increase, whilst providing the minimum receivable cashflow in the event of the market downturn. Swaptions Swaptions are options on swaps (typically coupon swaps). They give the holder the right but not the obligation to enter into a swap at a future date. The motivation for trades is same as for caps and floors (option to enter into a transaction depending on the prevailing market conditions), but unlike caps and floors that have multiple exercise dates, the swaptions have only one and therefore once exercised become the obligations to exchange future payments even

15 Svoptions Svopšns su opcije na svopove (obično kuponske svopove). Oni daju imaocu pravo ali ne i obavezu da uđe u svop na budući datum. Motivacija za trgovinu je ista kao kod caps i floors (opcija da se uđe u transakciju zavisno od važećih uslova na tržištu), ali za razliku od caps i floors koji imaju višestruke datume izvršenja, svopšns imaju samo jedan i zato - jednom izvršene - postaju obaveza da se razmene buduća plaćanja čak i kad to više nije od koristi za kupca. Ovo ih čini je inijom investicionom alternativom. Ipak, svopšns su popularan izbor za investitore koji nisu sigurni da će im trebati sredstva u budućnosti, jer im omogućavaju opciju da uđu ili ne u svop, zavisno od njihovih okolnosti kod isteka opcije. Osnovi utvrđivanja cene svopova Vrednovanje svopova kratkoročne kamatne stope kod nastajanja ugovora Osnovni koncept vrednovanja svopova (ili vrednovanja bilo koje druge finansijske hartije od vrednosti) može se svesti na sadašnju vrednost novca, tj. u tržišnom okruženju pozitivne kamatne stope svaki iznos novca vredi više sada nego u budućnosti. Što duže čekamo na plaćanje, kompenzacija mora da bude viša. Otuda investitor nije spreman da plati više za proizvod nego što je njegova sadašnja vrednost (tekuća tržišna vrednost). Pošto svop ima dve komponente, implicitno one moraju da imaju jednaku vrednost na početku, inače manje vredna strana ne bi bila atraktivna za investitore. Određivanje cene svopa zasniva se na sporazumima o terminskoj stopi (sporazumi da se fiksira aktivna/pasivna stopa za kratak period u budućnosti). Pošto su sporazumi o terminskoj stopi likvidni instrumenti sa poznatim tržišnim cenama, određivanja cene kamatnih svopova na početku je jednostavno. Pošto je moguće kupiti seriju karatkoročnih ugovora o terminskoj stopi za period od 3 v 6 meseci, 6 v 9 meseci, 9 v 12 meseci, i tako dalje, moguće je izračunati ekvivalentnu stopu za ukupan period, što bi dalo isti neto rezultat, tj. stopu svopa. Ovaj koncept je osnova za određivanje cene svopa. Sveukupna svop stopa izračunata korišćenjem diskontnih faktora (DF) na osnovu kratkoročnih terminskih stopa može se izračunati iz sledeće jednačine: 1 = Gde su: r s godišnja stopa svopa dani k broj dana pokrivenih ugovorom o terminskoj stopi k th DF k diskontni faktor izveden iz k th terminske stope f k korišćenjem: DF k = Vrednovanje svopova na sekundarnom tržištu Jasno, na početku je implicirano da obe komponente svopa imaju jednaku vrednost. Međutim, u bilo kojoj tački u budućnosti, kako se kamatne stope menjaju, dve komponente se udaljavaju od ravnoteže, što dovodi do plaćanja jednog partnera drugom. Kasnije vrednovanje prati isti princip diskontovanja budućih tokova novca za obe komponente. Nezavisno od kamatnih stopa, varijabilna komponenta se uvek vrednuje po paritetu, pošto se kamatne stope odražavaju na plaćanja po varijabilnoj komponenti. Fiksnu komponentu, međutim, pogađa promena jer diskontni faktor primenjen na izračunavanje sadašnjih vrednosti kupona više nije isti. Otuda, njeno vrednovanje može da se sumira kao: P = Gde su: P vrednost fiksne komponente na kasniji datum r s svop stopa, fiksirana na početku dani k broj dana pokrivenih ugovorom o terminskoj stopi k th DF k diskontni faktor izveden iz k th terminske stope f k u vreme izračunavanja svopa. Pošto je vrednovanje svopa na početku bilo zasnovano na uslovnom iznosu od 100, jasno je da se razlika između izračunate fiksne komponente i 100 plaća/prima, zavisno od važećih kamatnih stopa. Primalac fiksne stope ima korist od rastućih kamatnih stopa i obrnuto. bankarstvo -

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