The financial press often links daily activity in financial

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1 MonetaryTrends May Has the Bond Market Forgotten Oil? The financial press often links daily activity in financial markets to general economic news As of late, the world price of oil has been one of the most often cited causes of fluctuations in securities prices Rising oil prices have been blamed for declining stock prices, weakness in the dollar exchange rate, and, to some extent, movements in government bond yields Still, compared with other periods of rising oil prices, the bond market s reaction has been limited Since the oil crises of the 197s, the yields on government securities have typically risen when the price of oil has risen, and fallen when the price of oil has fallen In the 197s, a rising price of oil often presaged a sustained increase in the rate of inflation; bond investors responded by demanding higher nominal yields to protect their real returns Similarly, in the 19s and 199s, when oil prices and inflation generally fell, bond yields also fell The chart illustrates the positive long-run correlation between the price of oil and government security yields from the 197s through the 199s Alongside the price of oil, the chart shows the yield on 1-year US Treasury securities To highlight longer-term relationships, both series are plotted as eight-quarter moving averages, which smoothes out shortrun fluctuations in the data The chart also illustrates that the yield on government securities trended downward between 1 and, even as the price of oil more the doubled, and offers a clue for this unusual pattern: The increase in the price of oil was not accompanied by a significant increase in the overall rate of inflation (shown here as the eight-quarter moving average of the year-over-year percent change in the consumer price index) The price of oil hit its recent low in December 199 and has risen almost continuously since December 1 While the increase in the price of oil in 1999 and was accompanied by a modest increase in bond yields and consumer price inflation, the increase that began in 1 has had little or no perceptible effect on either bond yields or inflation The current lack of a 1 response of bond yields to the rising price of oil probably reflects both the overall condition of the US economy when the price of oil began to rise and confidence on the part of bond investors that even a large increase in the price of oil will not have a substantial impact on the long-run rate of inflation The US economy was just beginning to emerge from a recession when the price of oil began to rise in late 1 Inflation was low and, unlike most recoveries, payroll employment failed to grow Few analysts viewed inflation as a threat and, as employment continued to lag, a few warned that deflation was possible In this environment, government security yields remained low More recently, employment growth has resumed and deflation fears have evaporated However, the rising price of oil is still not widely viewed as a precursor to higher inflation In part, this could reflect the fact that US firms are more energy efficient than they were in the 197s Many analysts also believe that the price of oil will decline from its recent high level In addition, however, many commentators argue that the Federal Reserve is unlikely to allow higher energy prices to result in a sustained increase in the rate of inflation When the price of oil rose in the 197s, the Fed failed to tighten monetary policy sufficiently to prevent higher inflation and bond yields The importance of maintaining a stable price level is much more widely recognized today than in the 197s, and the bond market has considerable faith that the Fed will not allow inflation to rise (or fall) significantly from its present level As long as such faith persists, the price of oil can rise and fall without causing large movements in bond yields David C Wheelock Oil Prices, Government Security Yields, and Inflation, 197- Dollars per Barrel Annual Rate Oil Price (left scale) Security Yield (right scale) Inflation Rate (right scale) Views expressed do not necessarily reflect official positions of the Federal Reserve System researchstlouisfedorg

2 Contents Page Monetary and Financial Indicators at a Glance Monetary Aggregates and Their Components Monetary Aggregates: Monthly Growth 7 Reserves Markets and Short-Term Credit Flows Measures of Expected Inflation 9 Interest Rates 1 Policy-Based Inflation Indicators 11 Implied Forward Rates, Futures Contracts, and Inflation-Indexed Securities 1 Velocity, Gross Domestic Product, and M 1 Bank Credit 1 Stock Market Index and Foreign Inflation and Interest Rates 1 Reference Tables 1 Definitions, Notes, and Sources Conventions used in this publication: 1 Unless otherwise indicated, data are monthly Shaded areas indicate recessions, as determined by the National Bureau of Economic Research change at an annual rate is the simple, not compounded, monthly percent change multiplied by 1 For example, using consecutive months, the percent change at an annual rate in x between month t 1 and the current month t is: [(x t /x t 1 ) 1] 1 Note that this differs from National Economic Trends In that publication, monthly percent changes are compounded and expressed as annual growth rates The percent change from year ago refers to the percent change from the same period in the previous year For example, the percent change from year ago in x between month t 1 and the current month t is: [(x t /x t 1 ) 1] 1 We welcome your comments addressed to: Editor, Monetary Trends Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis PO Box St Louis, MO 1- or to: stlsfred@stlsfrborg Monetary Trends is published monthly by the of the Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis Visit the s website at researchstlouisfedorg/publications/mt to download the current version of this publication or register for notification updates For more information on data in the publication, please visit researchstlouisfedorg/fred or call (1) -9

3 updated through /19/ Monetary Trends M and MZM Billions of dollars 9 1 MZM Reserve Market Rates Primary Credit Rate Effective Federal Funds Rate Intended Federal Funds Rate M Discount Rate Adjusted Monetary Base change at an annual rate 1-1 Treasury Yield Curve Week Ending: /1/ /1/ /1/ 1-1 m 1y y y y 7y 1y Total Bank Credit change at an annual rate 1 Interest Rates Jan Feb Mar Federal Funds Rate Prime Rate 9 Primary Credit Rate 9 Conventional Mortgage Rate 71 9 Treasury Yields: -Month Constant Maturity 7 -Month Constant Maturity 9 1-Year Constant Maturity -Year Constant Maturity Year Constant Maturity Year Constant Maturity 17-1 Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis

4 Monetary Trends updated through /1/ MZM and M1 1 1 MZM M M M Monetary Services Index - M Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis

5 updated through /1/ Monetary Trends Adjusted Monetary Base Domestic Nonfinancial Debt 1 1 Total - Federal Currency Held by the Nonbank Public 1 1 Time Deposits 1 1 Large Denomination - -1 Small Denomination -1 Checkable and Savings Deposits Savings Checkable -1-1 Money Market Mutual Fund Shares Institutional Funds 1-1 Retail Funds - Repurchase Agreements and Eurodollars Billions of dollars Billions of dollars Repos (left) Eurodollars (right) 1 Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis

6 Monetary Trends updated through /1/ M1 change at an annual rate MZM change at an annual rate M change at an annual rate M change at an annual rate Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis

7 updated through /1/ Monetary Trends Adjusted and Required Reserves Billions of dollars 1 1 Adjusted Required Total Borrowings, nsa Billions of dollars Excess Reserves plus RCB Contracts Billions of dollars *Actual value for September 1 is $ billion *Actual value for September 1 is $ billion Nonfinancial Commercial Paper Consumer Credit Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis 7

8 Monetary Trends updated through // Inflation and Inflation Expectations 1 Humphrey-Hawkins CPI Inflation Range Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia CPI Inflation University of Michigan The shaded region shows the Humphrey-Hawkins CPI inflation range Beginning in January, the Humphrey-Hawkins inflation range was reported using the PCE price index and therefore is not shown on this graph See notes on page 19 Treasury Security Yield Spreads Yield to maturity 1-Year less -Month T-Bill 1-Year less -Year Note -Year less -Month T-Bill Real Interest Rates, Real rate = Nominal rate less CPI inflation 1-Year Treasury Yield Federal Funds Rate Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis

9 updated through // Monetary Trends Short-Term Interest Rates 1 9-Day Commercial Paper 1 1 Prime Rate -Month Treasury Yield Long-Term Interest Rates Conventional Mortgage 7 Corporate Aaa 1-Year Treasury Yield Long-Term Interest Rates 9 Short-Term Interest Rates 7 Corporate Baa 9-Day Commercial Paper 1-Year Treasury Yield 1 -Month Treasury Yield FOMC Intended Federal Funds Rate, Discount Rate, and Primary Credit Rate 1 1 Discount Rate Intended Federal Funds Rate Primary Credit Rate Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis 9

10 Monetary Trends updated through /1/ Federal Funds Rate and Inflation Targets 1 % % % 1% % Target Inflation Rates 9 Actual Calculated federal funds rate is based on Taylor's rule See notes on page 19 Components of Taylor's Rule Actual and Potential Real GDP PCE Inflation Billions of chain-weighted dollars Actual 9 9 Potential Monetary Base Growth* and Inflation Targets 1 Actual 9 Target Inflation Rates % 1% % % % *Modified for the effects of sweeps programs on reserve demand Calculated base growth is based on McCallum's rule Actual base growth is percent change from year ago See notes on page 19 Monetary Base Velocity Growth 1-Year Moving Average Components of McCallum's Rule Real Output Growth 1-Year Moving Average - - -Year Moving Average Year Moving Average Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis

11 updated through /19/ Implied One-Year Forward Rates Week Ending: /1/ /1/ /1/ Monetary Trends Rates on -Month Eurodollar Futures, daily data Jun 1 May Apr y y y 7y 1y /1 /1 / /7 /1 /1 / / /11 /1 Rates on Selected Federal Funds Futures Contracts, daily data Jun May Apr /1 /1 / /7 /1 /1 / / /11 /1 Rates on Federal Funds Futures on Selected Dates /11/ /11/ /1/ Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Contract Month Inflation-Indexed Treasury Securities, weekly data Inflation-Indexed Treasury Yield Spreads, weekly data -Year -Year 1 1-Year 1 1-Year Inflation-Indexed 1-Year Government Notes, weekly data Inflation-Indexed 1-Year Government Yield Spreads, weekly data France UK UK US 1 US 1 France Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis 11

12 Monetary Trends updated through /1/ Velocity Nominal GDP/MZM, Nominal GDP/M (Ratio Scale) 7 MZM M Interest Rates 1 -Month T-Bill M Own MZM Own MZM Velocity and Interest Rate Spread Ratio Scale M Velocity and Interest Rate Spread Ratio Scale Velocity = Nominal GDP / MZM 1 197Q1 to 199Q 199Q1 to present Velocity = Nominal GDP / M Q1 to 199Q 199Q1 to present Interest Rate Spread = -Month T-Bill less MZM Own Rate 1 1 Interest Rate Spread = -Month T-Bill less M Own Rate 1 Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis

13 updated through /1/ Monetary Trends Gross Domestic Product Dashed lines indicate 1-year moving averages Real Gross Domestic Product Dashed lines indicate 1-year moving averages Gross Domestic Product Price Index Dashed lines indicate 1-year moving averages M Dashed lines indicate 1-year moving averages Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis 1

14 Monetary Trends updated through /1/ Bank Credit Investment Securities in Bank Credit at Commercial Banks Total Loans and Leases in Bank Credit at Commercial Banks Commercial and Industrial Loans at Commercial Banks Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis

15 updated through // Monetary Trends Standard & Poor's Composite Index (left) Price/Earnings Ratio (right) Recent Inflation and Long-Term Interest Rates United States Canada France Germany Italy Japan United Kingdom Consumer Price Long-Term Inflation Rates Government Bond Rates Q Q Q Q1 Dec Jan Feb Mar Inflation and Long-Term Interest Rate Differentials Canada Canada UK Germany UK Germany Japan - - Japan Inflation differential = Foreign inflation less US inflation Long-term rate differential = Foreign rate less US rate - 1/1/ 1/1/ 1/1/ 1/1/ 1/1/ - 1/1/ 1/1/ 1/1/ 1/1/ 1/1/ Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis 1

16 Monetary Trends updated through /1/ Money Stock M1 MZM M M Bank Credit Adjusted Monetary Base Reserves MSI M Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar *All values are given in billions of dollars 1 Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis

17 updated through /1/ Monetary Trends Federal Primary Prime -mo Treasury Yields Corporate S & L Conventional Funds Credit Rate Rate CDs -mo -yr 1-yr Aaa Bonds Aaa Bonds Mortgage Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar *All values are given as a percent at an annual rate Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis 17

18 Monetary Trends updated through /1/ M1 MZM M M change at an annual rate Mar Apr May Jun Jul 11 1 Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan - 7 Feb Mar Apr May Jun 9 Jul - -9 Aug Sep 9 Oct -1 1 Nov Dec Jan Feb - 7 Mar Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis

19 Monetary Trends Definitions M1: The sum of currency held outside the vaults of depository institutions, Federal Reserve Banks, and the US Treasury; travelers checks; and demand and other checkable deposits issued by financial institutions (except demand deposits due to the Treasury and depository institutions), minus cash items in process of collection and Federal Reserve float MZM (money, zero maturity): M minus small-denomination time deposits, plus institutional money market mutual funds (that is, those included in M but excluded from M) The label MZM was coined by William Poole (1991); the aggregate itself was proposed earlier by Motley (19) M: M1 plus savings deposits (including money market deposit accounts) and small-denomination (under $1,) time deposits issued by financial institutions; and shares in retail money market mutual funds (funds with initial investments under $,), net of retirement accounts M: M plus large-denomination ($1, or more) time deposits; repurchase agreements issued by depository institutions; Eurodollar deposits, specifically, dollar-denominated deposits due to nonbank US addresses held at foreign offices of US banks worldwide and all banking offices in Canada and the United Kingdom; and institutional money market mutual funds (funds with initial investments of $, or more) Bank Credit: All loans, leases, and securities held by commercial banks Domestic Nonfinancial Debt: Total credit market liabilities of the US Treasury, federally sponsored agencies, state and local governments, households, and nonfinancial firms End-of-period basis Adjusted Monetary Base: The sum of currency in circulation outside Federal Reserve Banks and the US Treasury, deposits of depository financial institutions at Federal Reserve Banks, and an adjustment for the effects of changes in statutory reserve requirements on the quantity of base money held by depositories This series is a spliced chain index; see Anderson and Rasche (199a,b, 1, ) Adjusted Reserves: The sum of vault cash and Federal Reserve Bank deposits held by depository institutions and an adjustment for the effects of changes in statutory reserve requirements on the quantity of base money held by depositories This spliced chain index is numerically larger than the Board of Governors measure, which excludes vault cash not used to satisfy statutory reserve requirements and Federal Reserve Bank deposits used to satisfy required clearing balance contracts; see Anderson and Rasche (199a, 1, ) Monetary Services Index: An index that measures the flow of monetary services received by households and firms from their holdings of liquid assets; see Anderson, Jones, and Nesmith (1997) Indexes are shown for the assets included in M, with additional data at researchstlouisfedorg/msi/indexhtml Note: M1, M, M, Bank Credit, and Domestic Nonfinancial Debt are constructed and published by the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System For details, see Statistical Supplement to the Federal Reserve Bulletin, tables 11 and 1 MZM, Adjusted Monetary Base, Adjusted Reserves, and Monetary Services Index are constructed and published by the Research Division of the Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis Notes Page : Readers are cautioned that, since early 199, the level and growth of M1 have been depressed by retail sweep programs that reclassify transactions deposits (demand deposits and other checkable deposits) as savings deposits overnight, thereby reducing banks required reserves; see Anderson and Rasche (1) and researchstlouisfedorg/aggreg/swdatahtml Primary Credit Rate, Discount Rate, and Intended Federal Funds Rate shown in the chart Reserve Market Rates are plotted as of the date of the change, while the Effective Federal Funds Rate is plotted as of the end of the month Interest rates in the table are monthly averages from the Board of Governors H1 Statistical Release The Treasury Yield Curve shows constant maturity yields calculated by the US Treasury for securities with months and 1,,,, 7, and 1 years to maturity Daily data and descriptions are available at researchstlouisfedorg/fred/ See also Statistical Supplement to the Federal Reserve Bulletin, table 1 The -year constant maturity series was discontinued by the Treasury as of February 1, Page : Checkable Deposits is the sum of demand and other checkable deposits Savings Deposits is the sum of money market deposit accounts and passbook and statement savings Time Deposits have a minimum initial maturity of 7 days Large Time Deposits are deposits of $1, or more Retail and Institutional Money Market Mutual Funds are as included in M and the non-m component of M, respectively Page 7: Excess Reserves plus RCB (Required Clearing Balance) Contracts equals the amount of deposits at Federal Reserve Banks held by depository institutions but not applied to satisfy statutory reserve requirements (This measure excludes the vault cash held by depository institutions that is not applied to satisfy statutory reserve requirements) Consumer Credit includes most short- and intermediate-term credit extended to individuals See Statistical Supplement to the Federal Reserve Bulletin, table 1 Page : Inflation Expectations measures include the quarterly Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia Survey of Professional Forecasters, the monthly University of Michigan Survey Research Center s Surveys of Consumers, and the annual Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) range as reported to the Congress in the February testimony that accompanies the Monetary Policy Report to the Congress Beginning February, the FOMC began using the personal consumption expenditures (PCE) price index to report its inflation range; the FOMC then switched to the PCE chain-type price index excluding food and energy prices ( core ) beginning July Accordingly, neither are shown on this graph CPI Inflation is the percentage change from a year ago in the consumer price index for all urban consumers Real Interest Rates are ex post measures, equal to nominal rates minus CPI inflation Page 9: FOMC Intended Federal Funds Rate is the level (or midpoint of the range, if applicable) of the federal funds rate that the staff of the FOMC expected to be consistent with the desired degree of pressure on bank reserve positions In recent years, the FOMC has set an explicit target for the federal funds rate Page 1: Federal Funds Rate and Inflation Targets shows the observed federal funds rate, quarterly, and the level of the funds rate implied by applying Taylor s (199) equation f * t = + π t 1 + (π t 1 π * )/ + 1 (y t 1 y P t 1 )/ to five alternative target inflation rates, π * =, 1,,, percent, where f * t is the implied federal funds rate, π t 1 is the previous period s inflation rate (PCE) measured on a year-over-year basis, y t 1 is the log of the previous period s level of real gross domestic product (GDP), and y P t 1 is the log of an estimate of the previous period s level of potential output Potential Real GDP is as estimated by the Congressional Budget Office Monetary Base Growth and Inflation Targets shows the quarterly growth of the adjusted monetary base (modified to include an estimate of the effect of sweep programs) implied by applying McCallum s (19, 199) equation ΔMB * t = π * + (1-year moving average growth of real GDP) (-year moving average of base velocity growth) to five alternative target inflation rates, π * * =, 1,,, percent, where ΔMB t is the implied growth rate of the adjusted monetary base The 1-year moving average growth of real GDP for a quarter t is calculated as the average quarterly growth during the previous quarters, at an annual rate, by the formula ((y t y t )/), where y t is the log of real GDP The -year moving average of base velocity growth is calculated similarly To adjust the monetary base for the effect of retail-deposit sweep programs, we add to the monetary base an amount equal to 1 percent of the total amount swept, as estimated by the Federal Reserve Board staff These estimates are imprecise, at best Sweep program data are found at researchstlouisfedorg/aggreg/swdatahtml Page 11: Implied One-Year Forward Rates are calculated by this Bank from Treasury constant maturity yields Yields to maturity, R(m), for securities with m = 1,, 1 years to maturity are obtained by linear interpolation between Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis 19

20 Monetary Trends reported yields These yields are smoothed by fitting the regression suggested by Nelson and Siegel (197), R(m) = a + (a 1 + a )(1 e m/ )/(m/) a e m/, and forward rates are calculated from these smoothed yields using equation (a) in table 11 of Shiller (199), f(m) = [D(m)R(m) D(m 1)] / [D(m) D(m 1)], where duration is approximated as D(m) = (1 e R(m) m )/R(m) These rates are linear approximations to the true instantaneous forward rates; see Shiller (199) For a discussion of the use of forward rates as indicators of inflation expectations, see Sharpe (1997) Rates on -Month Eurodollar Futures and Rates on Selected Federal Funds Futures Contracts trace through time the yield on three specific contracts Rates on Federal Funds Futures on Selected Dates displays a single day s snapshot of yields for contracts expiring in the months shown on the horizontal axis Inflation-Indexed Treasury Securities are yields on the most recently issued inflation-indexed securities of 1- and -year original maturities Inflation-Indexed 1-Year Government Notes shows the yield of an inflation-indexed note that is scheduled to mature in approximately (but not greater than) 1 years The current French note has a maturity date of 7//1, the current UK note has a maturity date of /1/1, and the current US note has a maturity date of 1/1/1 Inflation- Indexed Treasury Yield Spreads and Inflation-Indexed 1-Year Government Yield Spreads equal the difference between the yields on the most recently issued inflation-indexed securities and the unadjusted security yields of similar maturity Page 1: Velocity (for MZM and M) equals the ratio of GDP, measured in current dollars, to the level of the monetary aggregate MZM and M Own Rates are weighted averages of the rates received by households and firms on the assets included in the aggregates Prior to 19, the -month T-bill rates are secondary market yields From 19 forward, rates are -month constant maturity yields Page 1: Real Gross Domestic Product is GDP as measured in chained dollars The Gross Domestic Product Price Index is the implicit price deflator for GDP, which is defined by the Bureau of Economic Analysis, US Department of Commerce, as the ratio of GDP measured in current dollars to GDP measured in chained dollars Page 1: Investment Securities are all securities held by commercial banks in both investment and trading accounts Page 1: Inflation Rate Differentials are the differences between the foreign consumer price inflation rates and year-over-year changes in the US all-items Consumer Price Index Page 17: Treasury Yields are Treasury constant maturities as reported in the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System s H1 release Sources Agence France Trésor: French note yields Bank of Canada: Canadian note yields Bank of England: UK note yields Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System: Monetary aggregates and components: H release Bank credit and components: H release Consumer credit: G19 release Required reserves, excess reserves, clearing balance contracts, and discount window borrowing: H1 and H releases Interest rates: H1 release Nonfinancial commercial paper: Board of Governors website Nonfinancial debt: Z1 release M own rate Bureau of Economic Analysis: GDP Bureau of Labor Statistics: CPI Chicago Board of Trade: Federal funds futures contract Chicago Mercantile Exchange: Eurodollar futures Congressional Budget Office: Potential real GDP Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia: Survey of Professional Forecasters inflation expectations Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis: Adjusted monetary base and adjusted reserves, monetary services index, MZM own rate, one-year forward rates Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development: International interest and inflation rates Standard & Poor s: Stock price-earnings ratio, stock price composite index University of Michigan Survey Research Center: Median expected price change US Department of the Treasury: US security yields References Anderson, Richard G and Robert H Rasche (199a) A Revised Measure of the St Louis Adjusted Monetary Base, Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis Review, March/April, 7(), pp -1* and (199b) Measuring the Adjusted Monetary Base in an Era of Financial Change, Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis Review, November/ December, 7(), pp -7* and (1) Retail Sweep Programs and Bank Reserves, , Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis Review, January/February, (1), pp 1-7* and, with Jeffrey Loesel () A Reconstruction of the Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis Adjusted Monetary Base and Reserves, Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis Review, September/October, (), pp 9-7*, Barry E Jones and Travis D Nesmith (1997) Special Report: The Monetary Services Indexes Project of the Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis, Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis Review, January/February, 79(1), pp 1-* McCallum, Bennett T (19) Robustness Properties of a Monetary Policy Rule, Carnegie-Rochester Conference Series on Public Policy, vol 9, pp 17- (199) Specification and Analysis of a Monetary Policy Rule for Japan, Bank of Japan Monetary and Economic Studies, November, pp 1- Motley, Brian (19) Should M Be Redefined? Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco Economic Review, Winter, pp -1 Nelson, Charles R and Andrew F Siegel (197) Parsimonious Modeling of Yield Curves, Journal of Business, October, pp 7-9 Poole, William (1991) Statement before the Subcommittee on Domestic Monetary Policy of the Committee on Banking, Finance and Urban Affairs, US House of Representatives, November, 1991 Government Printing Office, Serial No 1- Sharpe, William F (1997) Macro-Investment Analysis, on-line textbook available at wwwstanfordedu/~wfsharpe/mia/miahtm Shiller, Robert (199) The Term Structure of Interest Rates, Handbook of Monetary Economics, vol 1, B Friedman and F Hahn, eds, pp 7-7 Taylor, John B (199) Discretion versus Policy Rules in Practice, Carnegie- Rochester Conference Series on Public Policy, vol 9, pp 19-1 Note: *Available on the Internet at researchstlouisfedorg/publications/review/ Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis