Americans AV Preferences: Dynamic Ride-Sharing, Privacy & Long-Distance Mode Choices Dr. Kara Kockelman & Krishna Murthy Gurumurthy
Survey Stats. 2,588 Americans answered 70-questions. 1,258 responses from Texas. Each response weighted to match U.S. demographics. Weighted summary: Wtd. Sample Demographics Mean SD Min Max Age (in yrs) 46.0 yrs 16.34 21 70 Gender (Male) 48.6 % - 0 1 Employed Full-Time 37.6 % - 0 1 Bachelor s Degree Holder 17.6 % - 0 1 U.S. License Holder 89.8 % 24.86 % 0 1 Driving Disability 7.9 % - 0 1 HH Size 2.33 persons 1.05 1 11 HH Annual Income $70.3k $47.2k $5k $250k # Workers in HH 1.15 workers 0.951 0 5 # Children in HH 0.54 children 0.917 0 9 # Vehicles in HH 1.75 vehicles 0.960 0 6
Screening Q s
Ride-sharing & WTP Only 63% Americans & 55% Texans may be willing to share their ride with no travel delays (for a 5-mile trip) during the day. These % s dropped to 25% & 30% for 15-minute travel delays & <10% for 30-minute or higher delays. National average of WTP was 74 per trip-mile for all respondents willing to share rides irrespective of travel delays. Very few Americans willing to share rides at night (<5%). But those willing to share show long duration: 40 min (day & night). Another 8% want to opt in if the stranger in the shared ride is prechecked for a criminal record. Location broadcasting services seem to encourage up to 15% more Americans to share their ride.
Crash Scenario & Responsibility AVs inevitably crash into a group of pedestrians AVs inevitably crash into other vehicles on the road Who is responsible for all damages in an unavoidable crash involving an AV? Crash Ethics Most preferred outcome/choice AVs must not change course, no matter what, & must crash into whoever is ahead. (54.2%, 47.6%) Crash must occur without any biases on vehicle-type, value or insurance. (38.4%, 38.9%) AV manufacturer should take responsibility. (60.9%, 59.7%) Next preferred outcome/choice The crash must should occur without any biases or preferences on age, race & gender of individuals in the group of pedestrians. (24.8%, 26.4%) AVs must not change course, no matter what, & must crash into the first vehicle it encounters. (31.8%, 31.8%) Programmer who built the AV s algorithm. (23.2%, 23.2%) (U.S. %, Texas %)
Privacy Concerns & Long-distance (LD) Impacts 89% respondents have at least some privacy concerns. Americans (~60%) are WTPay ~$1 per trip to anonymize their location while using AVs & SAVs. Comfortable with location data being used for Managing traffic & forecasting travel conditions (53.5%), Policing activities (53.7%), & Community surveillance (46.8%). Uncomfortable with location data used for directed advertising (60.4%). >80% of Americans prefer to use own household vehicle for a nonbusiness trip < 500 miles. Introduction of AVs & SAVs drops this use to 40%. AVs & SAVs enjoy a combined mode-share of 50% for business trips under 500 miles.
WTP for Dynamic Ride-Sharing: Model Estimation % Respondents not WTP to share rides was high: 47% (even if only 5 min added) Cragg s Hurdle (2-stage) model: Selection variable captures binary willingness to share ride. Exponential regression estimates the $ WTP. Heteroscedasticity was allowed as function of age. Binary Selection Model (WTP > $0 or Not) Independent Variables Coefficients T-stat Constant 1.14 4.86 Time added to the shared ride (in minutes) -0.04-13.80 Worker present in the household? -0.30-2.61 Age (in years) -0.01-3.83 Have U.S. driver s license? -0.47-2.59 HH s income between $75k & $125k? 0.36 3.22 Has attended some college? 0.26 2.14 Population density (per square mile) -0.3E-4-2.99 Employment density (per square mile) 0.5E-4 3.08 Exponential Regression Model Independent Variables Coefficients T-stat Constant -0.68-4.82 Age (in years) 0.01 3.13 Has attended some college? -0.21-2.66 Functional Variables for Hetroscedasticity Age (in years): Exponential model -0.01-8.00 Fit statistics Pseudo R-square 0.7034 # Observations & # Respondents 12,940 (2,588)
Practical Impacts in WTP for DRS Practical significance obtained by studying % change in WTP values after changing X values of an average American. If age increases, 26% less WTP for DRS may be observed. Lack of driver s license associated with 38% higher WTP. 1 std. dev. higher jobs density comes with 21% rise in WTP. Higher household income comes with rise in WTP. Independent Variables Worker present in the household? Age of respondent (in years) Have U.S. driver s license? Household income between $75k & $125k? Has attended some college? Population density (per sq mile) Employment density (per sq mile) % Change in WTP Y +19.6% N -7.8% +1SD -26.9% -1SD +18.1% Y -4.7% N +38.2% Y +26.1% N -6.6% Y +6.7% N -10.0% +1SD -19.5% -1SD +10.5% +1SD +21.6% -1SD -5.9%
WTP for Anonymization of Trip Ends: Model Estimation Cragg s Hurdle (two-part) model Heteroscedasticity as function of age. Many variables significant. Men less willing to anonymize trip ends, on average. Older people typ. willing to pay less. Privacy concerns increase WTP. Binary Selection Model (WTP > $0 or Not) Independent Variables Ceof. T-stat Constant -0.40-1.61 Concerned Exponential about privacy? Regression Model 1.73 9.26 Independent No disability? Variables Coef. -0.69 T-stat -5.75 Constant Household owns 1 vehicle? -0.86 0.60-7.23 5.40 Age of respondent (in years) 2 vehicles? -0.4E-2 0.67-3.24 5.48 Have U.S. driver s license? 3 vehicles? 0.26 0.63 3.72 4.64 Caucasian? 4+ vehicles? -0.14 0.66-3.10 4.14 Household Household has 2 or size less equal children? to 2? 0.48 0.16 6.11 2.02 Household income: < $20,000 equal to 3? 0.23 0.27 2.45 2.67 < $30,000 equal to 4+? 0.52-0.11 5.20-1.13 Household < workers $40,000 equal to 1? 0.39-0.12 3.67-1.54 < $50,000 equal to 2? 0.18-0.10 1.77-1.07 < $60,000 equal to 3? 0.08-0.47 0.72-3.14 < $75,000 equal to 0.41-0.51 4.07-1.89 4+? < $100,000 0.38 3.94 Age of respondent < $125,000 (in years) 0.38-0.02-11.14 3.60 Is Male? < $150,000 0.36-0.35 3.22-6.35 Household < income: $200,000 < $20,000 0.54 0.72 4.52 5.51 > $200,000 < $30,000 0.06 0.13 0.56 1.06 Population density (per square < $40,000 mile) -0.2E-4-0.02-3.13-0.14 < $50,000 0.18 1.31 Employment density (per square < $60,000 0.1E-4 0.17 2.48 1.19 mile) < $75,000 0.33 2.41 Variables with Heteroscedasticity < $100,000 0.25 1.87 Age of respondent (in years): < $125,000-0.6E-2 0.17-16.62 1.19 Exponential model < $150,000 0.68 3.96 Fit statistics < $200,000 0.14 0.84 Pseudo R-square 0.6140 > $200,000 0.70 4.06
Practical Effects in WTP to Anonymize Obtained by studying % change in values by changing 1 attribute of an avg. person. All % changes in WTP negative. Lack of HH vehicle reduces WTP (-56%). Old people less willing to pay (-56%). Negative sensitivities for all predictors. Lack of WTPay in the future to anonymize trip ends. Independent Variables % Change % Change in WTP in Independent Variables HH Income: < $20,000 WTP -21.0% Y: -35.1% No disability? < $30,000-32.5% N: -13.1% < $40,000-42.5% HH owns 0 vehicles? -55.6% < $50,000-40.0% 1 vehicle? -33.1% < 2 $60,000 vehicles? -30.5% -42.3% < 3 $75,000 vehicles? -32.0% -28.6% < 4+ $100,000 vehicles? -30.9% -32.3% HH size equal < $125,000 to 1? -36.2% -35.3% equal to 2? -30.3% < $150,000-18.1% equal to 3? -26.5% < $200,000-31.9% equal to 4+? -40.2% HH workers > $200,000 equal to 0? -29.7% -26.2% Have U.S. driver s equal to 1? Y: -34.0% -32.8% license? equal to 2? N: -33.3% -39.1% equal to 3? Y: -47.0% -35.2% Caucasian? equal to 4+? N: -48.5% -31.3% Age of respondent (in +1SD: -55.6% +1SD: -36.5% Pop. years) density (per sq. mi) -1SD: -15.0% -1SD: Y: -40.0% -30.0% Is Male? Employment density (per +1SD: N: -27.4% -29.5% sq. mi) -1SD: -34.4%
Long-Distance (LD) Mode Choice Practical impact studied using multinomial logit. SAVs focused on business trips (+67% share). HHs with more Workers prefer private AVs (+50%). Non-owners of cars prefer SAV for LD Trip (+43%). Independent Variables Change in Mode Share AVs SAVs Airplane Trip Type Personal? +3.8% -25.0% -7.2% Business? -22.2% +67.4% +11.9% Recreation? -5.0% -16.4% +1.4% Distance: 100 500 miles +19.5% +24.5% -38.7% > 500 miles -18.6% -22.6% +37.3% HH owns 0 vehicles? +43.6% -10.4% -18.8% 1 vehicle? +2.1% -31.0% +12.2% 2 vehicles? -15.4% +1.8% +4.8% 3 vehicles? +14.3% +51.7% -18.3% 4+ vehicles? +22.6% +51.8% -37.6% HH size equal to 1? -8.9% +8.4% +11.7% equal to 2? +33.4% +22.2% -27.2% equal to 3? -14.9% -13.8% +14.1% equal to 4+? -22.7% -20.2% +10.6% HH workers equal to 0? +0.6% +33.7% +9.0% equal to 1? +6.2% -11.9% -17.9% equal to 2? -10.8% +11.7% +14.8% equal to 3? +2.0% -37.3% -12.8% equal to 4+? +50.3% -44.9% -6.8% Age of respondent (in years) Have U.S. driver s license? +1SD: -10.5% -11.8% -8.0% -1SD: +9.5% -8.0% +4.6% Y: -5.5% -3.5% -0.2% N: +57.9% +50.7% -7.4%
LD Mode Choice (2) Middle-class households strongly prefer SAVs - with 196% higher mode share! Children increase household use of AVs 83% & lower airplane use 39%. Those in wealthy HHs may continue to fly (+44%). Singles may not own AVs (with 40% lower probability for LD trips). Independent Variables % Change in Mode Share AVs SAVs Airplane Caucasian? Y: +5.9% -22.5% -8.8% N: -6.3% +32.3% +14.0% No child in HH -17.7% -23.6% +19.8% Children in the HH: 1 child? +23.7% +65.7% -39.4% 2 children? +64.1% +23.5% -43.5% 3 children? +84.0% +38.4% -39.4% 4+ children? -31.9% +36.7% -14.4% HH Income < $20,000 +14.6% -53.1% -29.4% < $30,000 +23.2% +56.7% -55.0% < $40,000-4.0% +45.4% -32.7% < $50,000-32.3% -32.0% +6.7% < $60,000 +23.4% +196.6% -44.6% < $75,000 +22.2% -77.6% +6.7% < $100,000-23.5% +44.5% +17.4% < $125,000-5.8% +6.8% +30.0% < $150,000-4.6% -51.5% +45.2% < $200,000 +5.6% -76.2% +43.5% > $200,000-8.9% -61.9% +44.3% Has attended some college? Y: -3.1% +13.5% +7.8% N: +9.9% -27.2% -16.7% Currently working? Y: +54.9% +13.3% -8.2% N: -8.9% -8.1% +0.6% Single? Y: -40.3% -7.5% +21.7% N: +22.0% -0.5% -16.2% Pop. density (per sq. mi) +1SD: -5.4% +20.6% +10.1% -1SD: +1.3% -7.3% -5.0% Employment density (per sq. mil +1SD: -1.8% -15.7% -9.4% -1SD: -0.5% +9.1% +2.1%
Key Results Current U.S. perceptions of ride-sharing in an automated future are cautious. Ride-sharing expected to increase, with Millennials opting in, alongside their anticipated income increases. Privacy is a concern now (WTPay ~$1 to anonymize each trip). But, in the future, anonymization may not be necessary. Most long-distance business trips may be made in SAVs. Flying may still be favored by older people & families with no children. Evolving perceptions warrant continuing survey effort.
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