The Impact of Structural Adjustment on Income Distribution in Pakistan A SAM-based Analysis

Transcription

1 The Pakistan Development Review 37 : 4 Part II (Winter 1998) pp. 37:4, The Impact of Structural Adjustment on Income Distribution in Pakistan A SAM-based Analysis ZAFAR IQBAL and RIZWANA SIDDIQUI 1. INTRODUCTION Domestic poverty and income distribution are closely related to the state of the economy, which is linked with internal and external economic policies. Since 1988, under the rubric of structural adjustment programme (SAP), Pakistan has made use of fiscal, monetary and trade policies to correct her macro economic imbalances. It is hard to substantiate with proof that these programmes protect the poor. A number of studies have found that income distribution has been getting worse during the adjustment period in Pakistan. 1 For example, Kemal (1994); Jaffery and Khattak (1995) and Anwar (1996) found that SAP accompanied with rising income inequality and poverty in Pakistan. But these studies are restricted as they did not employ an adequate methodology to assess the impact of structural adjustment reforms on income distribution. 2 This paper, however, uses a simple static fixed-price SAM-based framework to analyse distributional outcome of incomes for rural and urban households. This methodology is useful because social accounting matrix (SAM) represents the whole economy and it does not need a large data set. This study uses latest social accounting matrix for the year with possible disaggregation of the households sector based on income levels. It is worth to note that earlier social accounting matrix (SAM) for the year developed by the Federal Bureau of Statistics did not provide a disaggregation of the households sector. This limits the analysis of the households sector, particularly when distributive and redistributive aspects need to be given importance. Therefore, SAM fills this Zafar Iqbal and Rizwana Siddiqui are Senior Research Economist and Research Economist at the Pakistan Institute of Development Economics, Islamabad, respectively. 1 For other developing countries opting for SAP, see Khan (1993), who concluded that out of 55 countries only seven succeeded to achieve positive impact on income distribution. 2 White (1995) and McGillivary et al. (1994)) argued that performing counter factual analysis using econometric or general equilibrium models is the most legitimate approach to examining the relationship between poverty and economic reforms.

2 37:4, 378 Iqbal and Siddiqui gap. Second, this paper intends to analyse the impact of fiscal policy relating to subsidies (production and consumption subsidies), government current expenditure and expenditure on health and education on incomes of various urban and rural households in Pakistan. It attempts to seek an appropriate answer of the main research question: Are these policies detrimental to incomes of urban and rural households in Pakistan? The plan of the paper is as follows. Following introduction, Section 2 presents historical overview of adjustment policies and income distribution in Pakistan. Section 3 describes methodology and data. Results are discussed in Section 4. Final section gives conclusion. 2. HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF ADJUSTMENT POLICIES AND INCOME DISTRIBUTION Fiscal performance of Pakistan deteriorated significantly up to financial year Budget deficit reached to 8.5 percent of GDP in A large portion of government expenditure was utilised for subsidy provision as consumer subsidies were supposed to help the poor and production subsidies to provide assistance in production process and for exports. At the same time, there have been many tax exemptions. Pakistan, therefore, was needed tax reforms with efficiency and equity objectives as well as to reduce budget deficit by revenue generation accompanied with reduction in current expenditure in order to free resources for development expenditure. In the first extensive adjustment programme embarked on July 1988, a number of recommendations were made by the IMF and the World Bank. It was recommended that tax revenue should be increased from 13.0 percent of GDP in to 16.9 percent of GDP in with an increase in direct tax revenue from 1.9 percent of GDP to 3.3 percent of GDP and indirect tax revenue from 11.2 percent of GDP to 13.6 percent of GDP. At the same time, it was emphasised a gradual reduction in government total expenditure from 26.7 percent of GDP in to 24.8 percent of GDP in by reducing current expenditure with main emphasis on lowering subsidies from 1.7 percent of GDP to 0.5 percent of GDP. Therefore, since 1988 the government has been making strenuous efforts to reverse the inherited trend in fiscal balance by broadening the tax base, abolishing tax exemptions and tax holidays and increasing the elasticity of tax system by shifting the emphasis from imports to domestic consumption. Initially, consumption subsidies were incurred to provide safeguard to poor against rising prices of essentials, such as wheat, edible oils while production subsidies were aimed to promote economic activities in areas with long run interest of the nation. But under the deregulation plan and to move towards more market oriented economy, subsidies are substantially withdrawn from 1.7 percent of GDP in to 0.5 percent of GDP in as reported in Table 1. Current and development expenditures are also declined, respectively, from 19.8 percent to 18.8 percent of GDP and from 6.9 percent to 3.1

3 Structural Adjustment and Income Distribution 37:4, 379 Table 1 Budget Key Indicators of Fiscal Policy in Pakistan (% of GDP) Government Expenditure Year Tax Revenue Total Subsidies Health 1 Education 1 Deficit Source: Pakistan (various issues). 1 Expenditure on health and education are as percentage of GNP. percent of GDP. Fiscal deficit has declined from 8.5 percent of GDP in to 5.4 percent of GDP during Table 1 also shows that public expenditure on education and health are declined, although SAP directed to increase expenditure on education and health. Though, the fiscal adjustment programmes emphasise resource mobilisation and low income groups are supposed to be protected, recent studies show that income inequality has increased during the period of adjustment in Pakistan. Historical trend in income distribution indicated by gini-coefficients along with GDP growth rates are presented in Table 2. It shows that the country has been growing satisfactorily, but income distribution has worsened over the period 1988 to Gini coefficients for Pakistan as a whole and for rural and urban areas reported in Table 2 show that gini-coefficients increased for Pakistan from 0.35 in to 0.40 in , for rural areas from 0.31 to 0.35 and for urban areas from 0.37 to 0.40 for the same years. Table 2 also shows that on the whole, income distribution during the period under consideration is more worse in urban area as compared to in rural area except in It seems that benefits of growth did not trickle down to the poor. However, these results have provoked us to conduct a study on income distribution to determine the possible causes of this outcome.

4 37:4, 380 Iqbal and Siddiqui Table 2 Trends of Gini Coefficients and Growth Rates of GDP Gini Coefficients Growth rate Years Pakistan Rural Urban of GDP (%) Source: Economic Survey, METHODOLOGY AND DATA This section describes salient features of SAM [Siddiqui and Iqbal (1999)]. After this, it briefly explains a simple static fixed-price SAM-based model, which is used to analyse the impact of selected fiscal policies under structural adjustment on households incomes. 31 Structure of a Social Accounting Matrix Interest in the social accounting matrix has mainly occurred in the last three decades, when it was extensively used as a tool for policy analysis. For example, Pyatt and Round (1977, 1979, 1985); Pyatt (1985, 1988, 1991, 1991a); King (1985); Thorbecke (1985); James and Khan (1993) and Iqbal (1996) all provide excellent introduction to SAMs and their uses. The SAM framework is also commonly used in computable general equilibrium (CGE) models for analysing structural adjustment reforms and their impact on income distribution and poverty in developing countries, for example, Robinson (1988) and Taylor (1990) provided a comprehensive survey on SAM-based CGE modelling. The classification and disaggregation of accounts in a social accounting matrix can take various forms, depending on how the constituent accounts are defined and depending on one s analytical interests and specific policy concerns. The I-O Table (1996) provides an elaboration of production account of the system of national accounts in Pakistan for the year The Integrated Economic Accounts (IEA) for the same year have also been compiled in conjunction with the I-O table for The IEA was developed using different data sources, for example, National Accounts Statistics; Balance of Payment Statistics; Household Income and Expenditure Survey; and Public Finance Statistics. The Integrated Economic Accounts provide a comprehensive overview of interrelationships between 3 Institutional Sector Accounts for and Integrated Economic Accounts for have almost similar characteristics.

5 Structural Adjustment and Income Distribution 37:4, 381 economic agents involved in income generation, distribution, accumulation and finance in the economy. The full details of the methodology and data sources used in the preparation are described in the main documents of I-O table and IEA for Since the FBS did not produce the social accounting matrix for the year , we attempt to compile a social accounting matrix for , using input-output table and integrated economic accounts for the same year. It yields a social accounting matrix of Pakistan. 5 A Social Accounting Matrix for the year summarised but comprehensive picture of the whole economy by showing the interrelationship among different aspects of economic transactions in production, consumption, and investment. According to standard accounting principles of a SAM, incoming (income) in one account is balanced by an outgoing (expenditure) of another account. Since incoming and outgoing are recorded in a single entry system, the social accounting matrix is a square matrix by definition. For every row there is a corresponding column and sum along the row is equal to the sum along the corresponding column. The SAM presents four types of accounts: factors account, institutions account, production account, and capital account. These accounts are disaggregated on the basis of requirements and availability of data. Factors of production account is disaggregated into labour and capital accounts. Institutions accounts consist of households, firms (non-financial and financial), government, and rest of the world. Households account is further disaggregated by four income categories of rural and urban households. These accounts elaborate the inter-institutional linkages. Production account is disaggregated into agriculture, industry, education, health and other sectors. Further disaggregation of production account is also made on the basis of m goods for domestic market and for export market. Finally, it presents consolidated capital account. 6 Since our analysis mainly focus on the households sector, the following sub section describes the disaggregation of the households by income groups and their sources and uses of income in a more detail. 31 Sources and Uses of Incomes of Households Sources of Income of Households Table 3 shows the sources of incomes of various urban and rural income groups during the year These estimates are derived of social accounting matrix for [Siddiqui and Iqbal (1999)]. Both urban and rural households are distinguished into four income groups namely lowest income group having monthly income upto Rs 2500, low income group Rs , middle income group Rs For IEA, see Rizvi (1996). For I-O table see Pakistan (1996), Supply and Use Tables of Pakistan Since the compilation of a SAM is quite flexible, it has been condensed according to our own choice and specific policy objectives. 6 For detailed discussion on the salient features of SAM, see Siddiqui and Iqbal (1999).

6 37:4, 382 Iqbal and Siddiqui Table 3

7 Structural Adjustment and Income Distribution 37:4, 383 and high income group Rs 7001 and above. Starting from urban households, Table 3 indicates that wages and salaries contribute the highest share of 54.2 percent in the total income of the urban lowest income group while the remaining sources of income of this group are operating surplus (42.2 percent), dividends from firms (1.1 percent), transfers from the government (1.1 percent) and transfers from the rest of the world (1.3 percent). Similarly, for the second urban low income group, wages and salaries contributes 46.7 percent, operating surplus 44.7 percent, dividends from firms 4.3 percent, transfers from the government 0.56 percent, and transfers from the rest of the world 3.7 percent in its total income. As contrast to the earlier two urban income groups, the middle and high income groups, respectively, receive largest shares from operating surplus 46.7 percent and 40.1 percent. While the remaining sources of incomes of both the middle and high income groups are, correspondingly, wages and salaries 38.8 percent and 28.5 percent, dividends from firms 5.8 percent and 11.6 percent, transfers from the government 1.0 percent and 2.1 percent, and transfers from the rest of the world 7.7 percent and 17.7 percent of their total incomes. Regarding the rural households, operating surplus contributes the largest shares in incomes of all the four categories of rural income groups, i.e percent, 68.3 percent, 72.0 percent and 61.5 percent in incomes of the lowest, low, middle and high income groups, respectively. While the other sources of incomes of all the four rural income groups are, correspondingly, wages and salaries 37.4 percent, 21.3 percent, 15.5 percent, and 7.6 percent; dividends from firms 2.6 percent, 5.2 percent, 7.4 percent, and 17.1 percent; transfers from the government 0.75 percent, 0.5 percent, 0.31 percent, and 4.3 percent; and transfers from the rest of the world are 2.7 percent, 4.7 percent, 4.8 percent and 9.6 percent. Uses of Income by Rural and Urban Households The uses of incomes are summarised in Table 4 from SAM [Siddiqui and Iqbal (1999)]. It shows that total uses of income are equal to total sources of income of respective income groups. Starting from urban households, Table 4 shows that of the total uses of income, the largest share is spent on manufactured products by all the four urban income groups such as 56.0 percent by the lowest income group, 45.8 percent by the low income group, 38.4 percent by the middle income group and 22.7 percent by the highest income group. The second largest expenditure component is on agricultural product where the lowest income group spends 43.2 percent, low income group 34.9 percent, middle income group 28.2 percent and high income group 15.7 percent of their total incomes. On other activities (including services), lowest income group spends 29.8 percent, low income group, 27.2 percent, middle income group 25.0 percent and high income group 23.9 percent of their incomes. Table 4 also shows that all

8 37:4, 384 Iqbal and Siddiqui Table 4

9 Structural Adjustment and Income Distribution 37:4, 385 these groups spend a small share i.e., less than 2 percent of their incomes on both education and health. It is interesting to note that all the urban income groups pay less than 1 percent of their incomes as a direct taxes to the government. It is also evident from Table 4 that both urban lowest and low income groups are net dissavers (i.e percent and 10.0 percent of their income, respectively) while the other two groups middle and high income groups save, respectively, 6.0 percent and 35.4 percent of their total incomes. Regarding rural households, Table 4 shows different uses of incomes by the lowest, low, middle and high income groups in Pakistan. As similar to urban households, it shows that all rural income groups spend largest proportion of their incomes (i.e percent, 42.2 percent, 33.4 percent, and 16.6 percent, respectively) on manufactured goods. While the second largest consumption component is agricultural product on which they spend, correspondingly, 45.9 percent, 34.1 percent, 26.2 percent, and 12.8 percent of their total incomes. The expenditure on other commodities (including services) remains 23.7 percent, 19.5 percent, 17.4 percent, and 11.0 percent, respectively. As similar to urban income groups, the rural income groups also spend a small proportion of their income on health and education which is even lesser than spending by the urban groups. The rural income groups also pay a small amount of their incomes (i.e. less than 1 percent except highest income group which pays 1.3 percent) as direct taxes to the government. Table 4 shows that the rural lowest income group is a net dissaver of 28.6 percent of its income while the other groups are the savers as the low income group saves 2.9 percent, middle income group 21.7 percent, and high rural income 57.7 percent of their total incomes in A SAM-based Model A static fixed-price SAM-based model is used to calculate the impact multipliers of socio-economic linkages using the social accounting matrix for the year [Siddiqui and Iqbal (1999)]. This simple model provides multipliers in a general equilibrium framework. The multipliers can be further decomposed in order to derive the direct and indirect effects and the main causal linkages underlying the structure of the economy. Pyatt and Round (1985) provided a comprehensive measure of multiplier analysis, which is also used here. The multiplier model includes Leontief input-output multipliers and the impact of exogenous shocks on income generation, distribution and consumption. The procedure of the multiplier analysis is as follows. In a SAM-based analysis, it is a common practice to take government accounts, capital accounts, and the rest of the world accounts as exogenous, on the assumption that they are externally determined. Thus, exogenous accounts are taken into vector x and total incomes of the endogenous accounts as vector y, while the transactions of the endogenous accounts relative to total income are taken as matrix A. All these lead to the following equation:

10 37:4, 386 Iqbal and Siddiqui y = Ay + x = (I A) 1. x = M a. x (1) The aggregate multiplier (M a ) in Equation (1) can be further decomposed into three matrices M 1, M 2, and M 3 in order to derive direct and indirect effects. M 1 captures the effects of one group on itself through direct transfers. M 2 captures the cross-effects of the multipliers process whereby an injection into one part of the system has repercussions on other parts. Matrix M 3 shows the full circular effects of an income injection going round the system and back to its point of origin in a series of repeated and dampening cycles. The mathematical expression is as follows: where y = (M 3.M 2.M 1 ). x (2) Pyatt and Round respecify Equation (2) as: y = (I + T + O + C). x (3) I = initial impulse or identity multiplier (unit increase). T = (M 1 I) named as transfer multiplier. O = (M 2 I). M 1 named as open-loop multiplier. C = (M 3 I). M 2. M 1 named as closed -loop multiplier. In this study, using Equation (3), we undertake the multiplier analysis and simulate some exogenous changes relating to fiscal policy in Pakistan. The simulation results will provide the direct and indirect effects of exogenous shocks on income distribution of aforementioned various urban and rural income groups. 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Using the SAM-based model, the aggregate multipliers (M a ) and its decomposition into initial impulse (I), transfer multiplier (T), open-loop multiplier (O), and closed-loop multiplier (C) are calculated and are reported in Appendix Table 1. It shows that values in column (M a ) give the backward linkages of the endogenous accounts, which indicate the measure of the opportunities offered to suppliers arising from marginal changes in final demand (i.e. exogenous accounts). The vector of the sum of rows gives the forward linkages or the effect of changes in supply on output of using sectors. The multipliers for all endogenous accounts imply a high degree of integration of the accounts. For the production sectors, backward linkages are strongest for the education, followed by agriculture, health, other sectors and industry. The largest forward linkage multipliers, which give the total effect on each account of a unit change

11 Structural Adjustment and Income Distribution 37:4, 387 in all endogenous accounts, are found for industry, followed by other sectors, agriculture, health, and education. Regarding the households income groups, the largest backward linkage is for the urban poorest (HU1 having income less than Rs 2500 per month) and smallest for the rural rich (HR4 having income more than Rs 7000 per month). While the largest forward linkage is for the rural poorest (HR1 having income less than Rs 2500 per month) and smallest for the urban poorest (HU1 having income less than Rs 2500 per month). 7 For the present analysis, we focus on Table 5 which gives the simulation results of changes in various exogenous accounts on all households income groups along with other endogenous accounts. Here, the simple simulation exercise assesses the nature of socio-economic linkages in Pakistan s economy. Table 5 summarises the results of the simulations of various exogenous injections relating to selected structural adjustment reforms in Pakistan. The simulation results are briefly explained as follows: 8 (i) 50 Percent Reduction in Subsidies In almost all the structural and sectoral adjustment programmes, the much emphasis has been placed on reduction in subsidies. As indicated earlier in Table 1, since the embarkation of SAP, subsidies have been significantly reduced from Rs 7.3 billion in (1.7 percent of GDP) to Rs 3.2 billion (0.5 percent of GDP) in , showing one of the most significant compliance indicators of structural adjustment programmes in Pakistan. Using the simple model described above, the simulations are performed by reducing the overall subsidies as well as consumption and production subsidies separately by 50 percent. The results are reported in Table 5. Starting from reduction in overall subsidies, Table 5 shows that the incomes of richest rural (HR4 having income more than Rs 7000 per month) and richest urban (HU4 having income more than Rs 7000 per month) are the most affected as their incomes declined by 3.5 percent and 2.3 percent, respectively. The second most affected income groups by reducing subsidies are the poorest urban and poorest rural (HU1 and HR1 both having income less than Rs 2500 per month) as their incomes are reduced by 2.1 percent and 1.9 percent, respectively. Reducing consumption and production subsidies separately by 50 percent, production subsidies affects the poorest group the most. The second most affected groups are the poorest urban and poorest rural. These results imply that the richest people in the country are the higher beneficiary of subsidies provided by the government. Regarding the producing sectors, the reduction in overall subsidies has more adverse impact on the agriculture sector, followed by industry, other sectors, 7 The multipliers need to be interpreted with caution because of several restrictive assumptions underlying the multiplier methodology. 8 The results should be interpreted with caution because of the assumption of no supply constraints in the system.

12 37:4, 388 Iqbal and Siddiqui Table 5

13 Structural Adjustment and Income Distribution 37:4, 389 health, and education. Table 5 also shows that operating surplus of the capital declines more than the wages of the labour due to a reduction in overall subsidies. (ii) 5 Percent Reduction in Government Overall Current Expenditure All the World Bank-IMF adjustment programmes have emphasised that Pakistan should reduce public current expenditure in order to correct the persistent fiscal imbalances. Public current expenditures were19.8 percent of GDP in , which declined to 18.0 percent of GDP in The persistent reduction in current government spending is taken as one of the indicators of the implementation of adjustment reforms in Pakistan. A summary of the main results of a reduction in government current expenditure is presented in Table 5. To standardise the simulations, we have reduced the level of government overall current expenditure by 5 percent below that of the base year The effects of a contraction in government spending appear to be negative on the incomes of all the urban and rural household groups. The largest reduction appears in the income of the richest rural (HR4), followed by poorest urban (HU1), whose incomes are reduced by 1.9 percent and 1.8 percent, respectively. Regarding factors of production, labour income is affected more (1.9 percent reduction) than capital income (1.7 percent decline). For the production sector, reduction in government current spending has more adverse impact on education followed by health, other sectors, agriculture and industry. (iii) 10 Percent Reduction in Government Expenditure on Education and Health In the recent adjustment reforms, it has been greatly emphasised to increase investment on education and health in order to enhance human capital in the country. The role of human capital in explaining variation in the rate of growth of output is one that has been given considerable attention in the current literature relating to economic growth in developing countries. Recent economic growth studies have listed human capital as a primary source of economic growth. 9 In spite of this positive phenomenon, government expenditure on education and health has been declining from 3.4 percent of GDP in to 3.0 percent of GDP in , although the Bank-Fund guided programmes emphasised to increase investment on human capital. Table 5 shows that the simulation result of 10 percent decline in public expenditure on education and health reduces activities in the education sector by 7.6 percent and the health 9 Iqbal and Zahid (1998); Barro and Sala-i-Martin (1995); Barro and Lee (1994); Mankiw et al. (1992); Barro (1991, 1989); Romer (1990); Becker et al. (1990); Lucas (1988) and Psacharopoulos (1973) argued that promoting human capital is instrumental in enhancing economic growth.

14 37:4, 390 Iqbal and Siddiqui sector by 5.1 percent. It also shows that the poorest urban (HU1) and poorest rural (HR1) adversely affected more than the other relatively better-off urban and rural income groups by reducing public expenditure on health and education as the incomes of both the groups decline. Similarly, income of the labour declines relatively more than operating surplus of the capital. (iv) Simulation Result of all Three Policies Each adjustment programme for Pakistan contains a set of policy variables that need to be implemented simultaneously. Therefore, all the aforementioned policy variables (i.e., 50 percent reduction in overall subsidies, 5 percent reduction in overall government current expenditure, and 10 percent reduction in government expenditure on education and health) are now taken together and the policy simulations are performed collectively. The results of the combinations of the policy reforms are reported in Table 5, which show that all joint policies have considerable negative impact on incomes of all the rural and urban households groups. Among the urban households, the poorest income group affected more than the other income groups as its income is reduced by 4.5 percent. Among rural households, the richest rural income group is affected more as its income is reduced by 5.5 percent, followed by the poorest rural income group whose income is declined by 4.1 percent. Regarding factors of production, labour income is affected negatively more than income of the capital. Among the production sectors, combined adjustment policies have considerable negative impact on education, followed by the health sector as activities in these sectors are declined by 11.9 percent and 9.1 percent, respectively. 5. CONCLUDING REMARKS AND EXTENSION OF WORK Structural adjustment reforms advocated by the World Bank and the IMF began in Pakistan in The Bank-Fund adjustment programmes were intended primarily to overcome a variety of macroeconomic distortions as well as a set of deep-rooted structural problems in the economy. After more than a decade of intensive adjustment reforms, still no consensus can be found about the effects they have had on Pakistan s economy. More recently, the important area of research is to analyse the social impact of adjustment reforms, particularly on income distribution and poverty, using an appropriate quantitative framework. Therefore, this paper attempts to contribute to a more adequate assessment of structural adjustment reforms on income distribution in Pakistan. Given that the first objective is to understand Pakistan s economy, the starting point is to design a social accounting matrix that, through appropriate

15 Structural Adjustment and Income Distribution 37:4, 391 choice of classifications, can capture its important characteristics and the problems it faces. Therefore, a latest social accounting matrix for the year , using the Integrated Institutional Accounts and Input-Output Table for the same year, is compiled. The matrix framework provides useful information about the structure of Pakistan s economy. Within this framework, the preferred classifications of various accounts are undertaken according to the policy objectives and later model building. Here, the matrix is used as a tool for structural analysis to provide a quantitative description of the process of production, consumption, distribution, and accumulation. Using a static fixed-price SAM-based model, related simulation exercises are performed to describe the impact of three key structural adjustment policies such as 50 percent reduction in subsidies, 5 percent reduction in overall public current spending, and 10 percent reduction in public spending on education and health (referred as human capital) on incomes of various urban and rural households groups in Pakistan. The main conclusions are as follows. First, the results show that reduction in subsidies has the more adverse impact on the incomes of richest rural and urban households, implying that the richest people in the country are the higher beneficiary of subsidies provided by the government. The second most affected income groups by reducing subsidies are the poorest urban and poorest rural. In particular, consumption subsidies are basically to provide assistance in consumption to the poor but the richest urban and rural groups are benefiting more. Second, the effects of a contraction in government spending appear to be negative on the incomes of all the urban and rural household groups. The largest reduction appears in the income of the richest rural, followed by poorest urban. Third, the simulation results show that decline in public expenditure on education and health discourages activities in the education and health sectors. It also shows that the poorest urban and poorest rural are affected more than the other relatively better-off urban and rural income groups. Finally, the results of the combinations of the policy reforms show that all joint policies have considerable negative impact on incomes of all the rural and urban households groups. Among the urban households, the poorest income group affected more than the other income groups. Among rural households, the richest rural income group is affected more, followed by the poorest rural income group. However, policy implications derived from the results obtained in the study are limited in nature though a fair idea can be obtained about the impact of changes in exogenous demand, that is, the results show that structural adjustment programmes have worse distributional impact on urban and rural households incomes in Pakistan.

16 37:4, 392 Iqbal and Siddiqui Appendix Table 1

17 Structural Adjustment and Income Distribution 37:4, 393 REFERENCES Anwar, Tilat (1996) Structural Adjustment and Poverty: The Case of Pakistan. The Pakistan Development Review 35: Barro, R. J. (1989) A Cross-country Study of Growth, Saving, and Government. National Bureau of Economic Research. Cambridge, Massachusetts. (NBER Working Paper No ) Barro, R. J. (1991) Economic Growth in a Cross Section of Countries. Quarterly Journal of Economics 106: Barro, R. J., and J. W. Lee (1994) Losers and Winners in Economic Growth. Proceedings of the World Bank Annual Conference on Development Economics, Barro, R. J., and X. Sala-i-Martin (1995) Economic Growth. McGraw Hill. Becker, G., K. Murphy, and R. Tamura (1990) Human Capital, Fertility, and Economic Growth. Journal of Political Economy 98: Federal Bureau of Statistics (1993) Input-Output Table for Islamabad: Statistics Division, Government of Pakistan. Iqbal, Z. (1996) Three Gap Analysis of Structural Adjustment in Pakistan. Ph.D. Dissertation, Tilburg University, the Netherlands (Unpublished). Iqbal, Z., and G. M. Zahid (1998) Macroeconomic Determinants of Economic Growth in Pakistan. The Pakistan Development Review 37: Jaffery, S. M. Younas, and A. Khattak (1995) Income Inequality and Poverty in Pakistan. Pakistan Economic and Social Review 33:1& James, J., and H. A. Khan (1993) The Employment Effects of an Income Redistribution in Developing Countries. World Development 21: Kemal, A. R (1994) Structural Adjustment, Employment, Income Distribution and Poverty. The Pakistan Development Review 33: Khan, A. Rehman (1993) Structural Adjustment and Income Distribution: Issues and Experiences. GENEVA: ILO, United Nations. King, B. B. (1985) What is SAM? In Pyatt and Round (eds) Social Accounting Matrices: A Basis for Planning. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. Lucas, R. (1988) On the Mechanics of Economic Development: W. A. Mackintosh Lecture. Journal of Monetary Economics 22: Mankiw, G. N., D. Romer, and D. N. Weil (1992) A Contribution to the Empirics of Economic Growth. Quarterly Journal of Economics 107: McGillivary, Mark, Howard White, and Afzal Ahmad (1995) Evaluating the Effectiveness of Structural Adjustment Policies on Macroeconomic: A Review of the Evidence with Special Reference to Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Applied Economics 11:1 & Pakistan, Government of (1996) Supply and Use Tables of Pakistan

18 37:4, 394 Iqbal and Siddiqui Islamabad: Statistics Division, Federal Bureau of Statistics. Pakistan, Government of (Various Issues) Economic Survey. Islamabad: Finance Division, Economic Advisor s Wing. Psacharopoulos, G. (1973) Returns to Education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Pyatt, G. (1985) Commodity Balances and National Accounts: A SAM Perspective. Review of Income and Wealth Series 31: Pyatt, G. (1988) A SAM Approach to Modelling. Journal of Policy Modelling 10: Pyatt, G. (1991) SAMs, The SNA and National Accounting Capabilities. Review of Income and Wealth Series 37: Pyatt, G. (1991a) Fundamentals of Social Accounting. Economic Systems Research 3: Pyatt, G., and J. I. Round (1977) Social Accounting Matrices for Development Planning. Review of Income and Wealth 23: Pyatt, G., and J. I. Round (1979) Accounting and Fixed-Price Multipliers in a Social Accounting Matrix Framework. Economic Journal 89: Pyatt, G., and J. I. Round (1985) Social Accounting Matrices: A Basis for Planning. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. Rizvi, S. R. H. (1996) Integrated Economic Accounts for Islamabad: Federal Bureau of Statistics, Statistics Division. Robinson, S. (1988) Multisectoral Models. In H. B. Chenery and T. N. Srinivassan (eds) Handbook of Development Economics, Volume II. Amsterdam: North-Holland Romer, P. M. (1990) Human Capital and Growth. Paper Presented at the Carnegie- Rochester Conference on Economic Policy. Rochester, New York. Siddiqui, R., and Iqbal Z. (1999) Salient Features of Social Accounting Matrix of Pakistan: Disaggregation of the Household Sector. (MIMAP-Pakistan Technical Paper Series No.1.) Taylor, L. (1990) Socially Relevant Policy Analysis, Structuralist CGE Models for the Developing World. Cambridge: MIT Press. Thorbecke, E. (1985) The Social Accounting Matrix and Consistency-type Planning Models. In Pyatt and Round (eds) Social Accounting Matrices: A Basis for Planning. Washington, D. C.: World Bank. White, Howard (1995) Is the World Bank Right About African Adjustment? Prepared for Economic Research Seminar, Institute of Social Studies, Den Haag, March.