Introduction to Financial Mathematics
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1 Introduction to Financial Mathematics Zsolt Bihary 211, ELTE
2 Outline Financial mathematics in general, and in market modelling Introduction to classical theory Hedging efficiency in incomplete markets Conclusions
3 Mathematical apparatus Probability theory Stochastic processes Statistics Ordinary differential equations Partial differential equations Linear algebra
4 Mathematical apparatus Probability theory OK Stochastic processes OK? Statistics OK Ordinary differential equations GOOD Partial differential equations GOOD Linear algebra GOOD
5 Mathematical apparatus Probability theory OK Stochastic processes OK? Statistics OK Ordinary differential equations GOOD Partial differential equations GOOD Linear algebra GOOD Numerical algorithms Modeling
6 Purpose Historical analysis, prediction Simulation, risk-analysis
7 Purpose Historical analysis, prediction Simulation, risk-analysis Build models that enables consistent pricing of simple and complicated financial products
8 A gambling problem We flip a coin twice. You win 2 $ if either of them is head. How much would you pay to play this game?
9 A gambling problem We flip a coin twice. You win 2 $ if either of them is head. How much would you pay to play this game? 3/4 2 H 1/4 TT
10 A gambling problem We flip a coin twice. You win 2 $ if either of them is head. How much would you pay to play this game? /4 H The correct price for this game is 15$ 1/4 TT
11 Another gambling problem The price of a stock is 1$. You can buy a call option on this stock with strike 1$. This means that you have the option to buy the stock for 1$ tomorrow. The stock price tomorrow is 12$ with probability ¾, and 8$ with probability ¼. How much would you pay to have this option? 3/ /4 8
12 Another gambling problem The price of a stock is 1$. You can buy a call option on this stock with strike 1$. This means that you have the option to buy the stock for 1$ tomorrow. The stock price tomorrow is 12$ with probability ¾, and 8$ with probability ¼. How much would you pay to have this option? 3/ /4 8
13 Another gambling problem The price of a stock is 1$. You can buy a call option on this stock with strike 1$. This means that you have the option to buy the stock for 1$ tomorrow. The stock price tomorrow is 12$ with probability ¾, and 8$ with probability ¼. How much would you pay to have this option? /4 12 The correct price for this game is AGAIN 15$ 1/4 8
14 Another gambling problem The price of a stock is 1$. You can buy a call option on this stock with strike 1$. This means that you have the option to buy the stock for 1$ tomorrow. The stock price tomorrow is 12$ with probability ¾, and 8$ with probability ¼. How much would you pay to have this option? /4 12 The correct price for this game is AGAIN 15$ 1/4 8 WRONG!!!
15 Another gambling problem The price of a stock is 1$. You can buy a call option on this stock with strike 1$. This means that you have the option to buy the stock for 1$ tomorrow. The stock price tomorrow is 12$ with probability ¾, and 8$ with probability ¼. How much would you pay to have this option? 1 3/4 1/ Sell ½ stock for 5$. If it goes up to 12$, collect 2$ from option and buy back ½ stock for 6$. In this case, you win 1$. If it goes down to 8$, option is worthless, and buy back ½ stock for 4$. In this case, you win 1$. With zero risk, you made 1$!!!
16 Another gambling problem The price of a stock is 1$. You can buy a call option on this stock with strike 1$. This means that you have the option to buy the stock for 1$ tomorrow. The stock price tomorrow is 12$ with probability ¾, and 8$ with probability ¼. How much would you pay to have this option? 1 1 3/4 1/ Sell ½ stock for 5$. If it goes up to 12$, collect 2$ from option and buy back ½ stock for 6$. In this case, you win 1$. If it goes down to 8$, option is worthless, and buy back ½ stock for 4$. In this case, you win 1$. With zero risk, you made 1$!!! So the correct price must be 1$
17 Another gambling problem The price of a stock is 1$. You can buy a call option on this stock with strike 1$. This means that you have the option to buy the stock for 1$ tomorrow. The stock price tomorrow is 12$ with probability ¾, and 8$ with probability ¼. How much would you pay to have this option? 1 1 3/4 1/ Any different price would mean arbitrage. If someone quotes a lower price, we buy option, hedge, and realize profit with zero risk. If someone quotes a higher price, we sell option, do the inverse hedge, and again realize profit with zero risk. So the correct price must be 1$
18 Another gambling problem The price of a stock is 1$. You can buy a call option on this stock with strike 1$. This means that you have the option to buy the stock for 1$ tomorrow. The stock price tomorrow is 12$ with probability ¾, and 8$ with probability ¼. How much would you pay to have this option? 1 1 1/2 1/ Any different price would mean arbitrage. We need a new measure to calculate the correct price of the option. This measure does not depend on our assessment of chances, it only depends on the prices of the underlying in the different scenarios. So the correct price must be 1$
19 Comparing the two gambling problems Coin flip Call option The correct price for this game is 15$ So the correct price must be 1$ /4 H Why are the prices different? 1 1 3/4 12 1/4 TT 1/4 8
20 Comparing the two gambling problems Coin flip Call option The correct price for this game is 15$ So the correct price must be 1$ 15 3/4 2 H Positive expected value, nonzero risk 1 3/ /4 TT Lower expected value, zero risk 1 1/4 8
21 Why buy an option? 1 3/ Speculative investment strategies 1 1/4 8 1 stock / $1 Spend $1 Profit (3/4) $ +2 Loss(1/4) $ -2 P&L $ +1 P&L % 1%
22 Why buy an option? 1 3/ Speculative investment strategies 1 1/4 8 1 stock / $1 5 stocks / $1 Spend $1 $1 + $4 Profit (3/4) $ +2 $ +1 Loss(1/4) $ -2 $ -1 P&L $ +1 $ +5 P&L % 1% 5%
23 Why buy an option? 1 3/ Speculative investment strategies 1 1/4 8 1 stock / $1 5 stocks / $1 1 calls / $1 Spend $1 $1 + $4 $1 Profit (3/4) $ +2 $ +1 $ +1 Loss(1/4) $ -2 $ -1 $ -1 P&L $ +1 $ +5 $ +5 P&L % 1% 5% 5%
24 Binomial Tree Model Call option with maturity at the second tic, with strike of 1$
25 Binomial Tree Model Call option with maturity at the second tic, with strike of 1$
26 Binomial Tree Model Call option with maturity at the second tic, with strike of 1$ Again, arbitrage dictates a risk-free strategy and a risk-free price Hedging strategy: Buy and sell stock depending on share price trajectory. 6
27 Conclusion of Classical Theory Price of option is determined not by perceived probabilities of the stock s price dynamics, but by no arbitrage condition There is a hedging strategy that reproduces the option by continuously rebalancing a stock portfolio Under quite general conditions, this strategy is risk-free
28 option Does hedging always work? stock
29 option Does hedging always work? stock There is a perfect hedge We can nullify risk
30 option Does hedging always work? stock
31 option Does hedging always work? stock There is no perfect hedge We can reduce risk, but cannot nullify it
32 option Does hedging always work? stock If we define risk as the mean square deviation, then the risk-minimizing strategy is the linear regression line.
33 General examples Two random, but perfectly correlated instruments
34 General examples Two random, but perfectly correlated instruments
35 General examples Two random, but perfectly correlated instruments Two random, correlated instruments
36 General examples Two random instruments related by a non-linear function
37 General examples Two random instruments related by a non-linear function Same, with additional noise
38 General examples Two random, perfectly uncorrelated instruments ? -3
39 General examples Two random, perfectly uncorrelated instruments ? Hedging efficiency is determined by the correlation between the instruments -3
40 Conclusions Classical theory paints an optimistic picture and restricts itself to complete markets where perfect hedging is possible Hedging, if cannot eliminate, at least should minimize risk Hedging efficiency depends on the correlation between instruments
41 References Financial Calculus (M. Baxter, A. Rennie) Stochastic Calculus For Finance I. (S. E. Shreve) Financial Modelling With Jump Processes (R. Cont, P. Tankov)
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