ILO - IPEC In-depth analysis of c hild labour and educ ation in Costa Ric a. San José, Costa Ric a, International Labour Offic e, 2004.

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1 Copyright International Labour Organization 2004 First published, 2004 Public ations of the International Labour Offic e enjoy c opyright under protoc ol 2 of the Universal Copyright Convention. Nevertheless, short exc erpts from them may be reproduc ed without authorization, on c ondition that the sourc e is indic ated. For rights of reproduc tion or translation, applic ation should be made to the Public ations Bureau (Rights and Permissions). International Labour Offic e, CH-1211, Geneva 22, Switzerland. The ILO welc omes suc h applic ations. ILO - IPEC In-depth analysis of c hild labour and educ ation in Costa Ric a. San José, Costa Ric a, International Labour Offic e, Child labour, Ec onomic c onditions, Soc ial c onditions, Educ ation, Costa Ric a ISBN: Web version: The designations employed, whic h are in c onformity with United Nations prac tic e, and the presentation of material therein do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the International Labour Offic e c onc erning the legal status of any c ountry, area or territory or of its authorities, or c onc erning the delimitation of its frontiers. The responsibility for opinions expressed in signed artic les, studies and other c ontributions rests solely with their authors, and public ation does not c onstitute an endorsement by the ILO of the opinions expressed in them. Referenc e to names of firms, c ommerc ial produc ts and proc esses does not imply their endorsement by the International Labour Offic e, and any failure to mention a partic ular firm, c ommerc ial produc t or proc ess is not a sign of disapproval. Visit the ILO web sites: r and r

2 Edition International Labour Offic e (ILO) International Programme for the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC) Statistic al Information and Monitoring Programme on Child Labour (SIMPOC) General Coordination and Supervision Angela Martins Oliveira International Labour Offic e (ILO) International Programme for the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC) Statistic al Information and Monitoring Programme on Child Labour (SIMPOC) National Technical Coordination Elizabeth Solano Salazar Coordinator, Area of Censuses and Surveys National Institute of Statistic s and Censuses (INEC) Report prepared by* Ana Luc ía Calderón Saravia *In the analysis of Chapter 2, Carlos Castro Valverde also ac ted as a c onsultant Technical assistance and review Elizabeth Solano Salazar, Coordinator, Area of Censuses and Surveys, INEC Esmirna Sánc hez Vargas, Head, Offic e of Attention and Elimination of Child Labour and Protec tion of Adolesc ent Workers, MTSS Angela Martins Oliveira, Senior Statistic ian, ILO/ IPEC-SIMPOC Astrid Marsc hatz, Data Analysis Expert, ILO/ IPEC-SIMPOC María Luisa Rodríguez, Coordinator, Time-Bound Programme in Costa Ric a, ILO/ IPEC The partial or total reproduc tion of the material published here is allowed as long as the data are not altered and the c orresponding c redit is given. Funding for this ILO public ation was provided by the United States Department of Labor. This public ation does not nec essarily reflec t the views or polic ies of the United States Department of Labor, nor does mention of trade names, c ommerc ial produc ts, or organizations imply endorsement by the United States Government. ii

3 National Institute of Statistics and Censuses (Instituto Nac ional de Estadístic a y Censos, INEC) Ministry of Labour and Social Security (Ministerio de Trabajo y Seguridad Soc ial, MTSS) Statistical Information and Monitoring Programme on Child Labour (SIMPOC) International Programme on the Eradication of Child Labour (IPEC) International Labour Office (ILO) In-depth analysis of child labour and education in Costa Rica Prepared by*: Ana Luc ía Calderón Saravia *In the analysis of Chapter 2, Carlos Castro Valverde also ac ted as a c onsultant. July 2004 iii

4 FOREWORD The International Labour Organization, working through the International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC), has turned the progressive prevention and abolition of c hildren s work into a universal c ause. At the global level, c hildren s work is a broad, c omplex and multi-fac eted issue. In the absenc e of reliable information and qualitative and quantitative studies, however, it is diffic ult to find effec tive ways to address the problem. For many years, a lac k of data regarding the c auses, magnitude, nature and c onsequenc es of c hildren s work has signific antly impeded efforts to effec tively fac e, halt and eliminate the problem, whic h affec ts millions of boys and girls around the world. Sinc e 1998, the International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour has administered the Statistic al Information and Monitoring Programme on Child Labour (SIMPOC). The purpose of the Programme is to assist partic ipating c ountries c ollec t data on c hildren s work for c omparison among themselves. The overall objec tive of SIMPOC is to use household surveys to generate quantitative data on sc hool ac tivities, as well as other ec onomic and non-ec onomic ac tivities in whic h c hildren are engaged outside of sc hool. The programme also aims to c ollec t qualitative information and c reate databases on c hildren s work. The information gathered by SIMPOC has served as the basis for a number of studies in partic ipating c ountries. The c ollec tion and analysis of reliable data supports the development of effec tive ac tions against c hildren s work. It is hoped that the information gathered in different c ountries, and the studies based on that information, will fac ilitate the development, implementation and follow-up of polic ies and programmes to c ombat c hildren s work. It should also promote soc ial attitudes that favour the sustainable prevention and progressive elimination of c hildren s work. I am c ertain that the information presented in this report on c hildren s work in Costa Ric a will c ontribute to a better understanding of the phenomenon, inc rease sensitivity to the plight of working boys and girls, and make it possible to develop better strategies to fight the problem. The ability of eac h partic ipating c ountry to form an inc reasingly ac c urate pic ture of c hildren s work undoubtedly points toward the development of a more effec tive proc ess and a shorter path toward a world without c hild labour. Guillermo Dema Subregional Coordinator ILO/ IPEC for Central Americ a, Panama, The Dominic an Republic, Haiti and Mexic o iv

5 PREFACE Child and adolesc ent work has existed in Costa Ric a for many years. Our forefathers inc luded boys, girls and adolesc ents in farm labour and housework. Over the last few years, however, what was onc e c onsidered a tradition has bec ome a soc ial problem. Our c ountry s girls and boys have joined the work forc e in large numbers, and have c onsequently bec ome vic tims of exploitative c onditions that limit both their ac c ess to educ ation and the enjoyment of their rights. To address this situation, the c ountry must develop a national polic y to effec tively abolish c hild labour, and take the immediate steps nec essary to put an end to the abuses suffered by girls and boys whose work puts their health, safety and moral integrity at risk. Girls and boys must also be guaranteed the highest possible level of physic al and mental development. A number of efforts to gradually eliminate c hild labour have therefore been undertaken. As a result of these endeavours, c hild labour has c ome to be viewed as a problem rather than a solution, and as suc h has been given a plac e on the c ountry s politic al agenda. As part of these initiatives, the Ministry of Labour and Soc ial Sec urity and the National Institute of Statistic s and Censuses, ac ting with the tec hnic al support of ILO IPEC, have implemented the Statistic al Information and Monitoring Programme on Child Labour (SIMPOC). This programme provides updated statistic s on the magnitude of c hild labour in Costa Ric a, as well as information on the geographic areas and oc c upations that hold the highest perc entages of working girls and boys. Suc h information fac ilitates the development of strategies to effec tively address the problem. The doc uments produc ed by SIMPOC also serve to supplement the sec ond National Plan to Eliminate Child Labour and Protec t Adolesc ent Workers. It is our hope that the information obtained through this programme will be of use to those who, in a variety of ways, have bec ome our partners and c olleagues in the struggle to eliminate c hild labour. Lic. Ovidio Pac hec o Salazar Camac ho Minister Ministry of Labour and Soc ial Sec urity Lic. José Antonio Calvo Direc tor National Institute of Statistic s and Censuses v

6 TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY...VIII 1. COSTA RICA S SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONTEXT, A SCENARIO FOR CHILDREN S WORK THE POPULATION POPULATION S SOCIO-ECONOMIC SITUATION Employed pop ulation, poverty levels, and inc ome LITERACY POPULATION S ACCESS TO BASIC SERVICES THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM IN COSTA RICA LEGISLATION THAT REGULATES PUBLIC EDUCATION COUNTRY S INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION COVERAGE OF THE REGULAR AND ALTERNATIVE EDUCATION SYSTEMS STUDENTS ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE DROPOUT RATE PUBLIC EDUCATION INFRASTRUCTURE TEACHING STAFF QUALIFICATIONS EDUCATION QUALITY AND RELEVANCE WORKING CHILDREN SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS ACTIVITIES PERFORMED BY CHILDREN AND THEIR WORKING CONDITIONS SCHOOL ATTENDANCE BY WORKING CHILDREN OPTIONS OFFERED TO WORKING CHILDREN BY THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM PROGRAMMES OF OPEN BASIC GENERAL EDUCATION FOR CYCLES I, II, AND III THE OPEN CLASSROOM PROGRAMME NEW OPPORTUNITIES PROGRAMME DIVERSIFIED (HIGH-SCHOOL) DISTANCE EDUCATION PROGRAMME (EDAD) EDUCATION FOR WORK PROGRAMMES Literac y Programme First Level Programme Sec ond Level Programme Third Level (High Sc hool) Emerging educ ation AN OVERALL ASSESSMENT OF THE ALTERNATIVE EDUCATION OPTIONS OVERALL CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS BIBLIOGRAPHY AND RESOURCES APPENDIX APPENDIX APPENDIX vi

7 LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Total c ountry population, by region Table 2: Total population, by sex, by area and age group Table 3: Distribution of the employed population, by sec tor and industry (in %) Table 4: Sc hooling level of the population 25 years old and over by sex (in %) Table 5: Net sc hooling rates in the formal educ ational system by age, by sex Table 6: Intra-annual dropout rates in elementary educ ation (Cyc les I and II) by area and sex, by type of institution Table 7: Intra-annual dropout rates in sec ondary educ ation (III c yc le and diversified educ ation), by sex, by area and type of institution (total figures and seventh grade, in %) Table 8: Total Regular Educ ation Institutes and Servic es by type of institution, Table 9: Working population between 5 and 17 years old, by sex and area Table 10: Main demographic, oc c upational, and inc ome c harac teristic s of households with known inc ome, by c hildren s ac tivity status Table 11: Working c hildren 5-17 years old by age group, by industry Table 12: Working c hildren 5 17 years old by sex, by industry Table 13: Working c hildren 5 to 17 years old by area, by industry Table 14: Working c hildren 5 to 17 years by sc hool attendanc e, by industry Table 15: Working c hildren 5 to 17 years old by age group, by shift Table 16: Average number of hours worked by working c hildren 5 to 17 years old by age group Table 17: Average monthly inc ome of working c hildren 5 to 17 years old that have an inc ome by age group Table 18: Working c hildren 5 to 17 years old by age group, sex, and area, by dec lared reason to work Table 19: Sc hool attendanc e of working c hildren 5 to 17 years old, by area, sex, age group, shift, and soc io-ec onomic c ondition Table 20: Population between 5 and 17 year old by sc hool situation, by ac tivity status, age group, sex, and area Table 21: Working c hildren 5-17 years old not attending the educ ational system by age group, sex, and area, by dec lared reason not to go to attend sc hool Table 22: Work-seeking c hildren between 5 and 17 years old by age group, sex, and area, by dec lared reason not to attend sc hool Table 23: Inac tive population 5-17 years old by age group, sex, and area, by dec lared reason not to attend sc hool vii

8 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The Multiple Purpose Household Survey (EHPM, for its name in Spanish), c arried out by the National Institute of Statistic s and Censuses (INEC) in 2002, inc luded a module on the ac tivities c arried out by the population between 5 and 17 years of age, whic h yielded updated information about the living c onditions of working c hildren and on the effec t of work on their ac ademic ac hievement. Ac c ording to the data revealed by the EHPM for 2002, people between the ages of 5 and 17 who are ec onomic ally ac tive were found in 99,846 households. The number of working c hildren in the c ountry for that year amounts to 113,523. Labour insertion at an early age takes plac e more frequently in rural areas, at a proportion of 68.4% of the total group of working c hildren, in c omparison to 31.6% in the urban areas. Boys enter the labour market in a higher number: 72.7% of the ec onomic ally ac tive population is c omprised of men. Families with members between 5 and 17 years who work live in disadvantageous ec onomic c onditions, a situation that is in agreement with the premise that relates c hild labour to poverty and, c onsequently, to a negative impac t on the insertion is sc hool and ac ademic performanc e. The data show that most of the labour ac tivities performed by c hildren between 5 and 17 c an be c lassified as unskilled ac tivities, in the sense that they do not required muc h experienc e or training. Fortyfour perc ent work in ac tivities related to the agric ulture, forestry, and hunting sec tors; 21.7% work in c ommerc e and c ar and applianc es repair, and 9.0% work in ac tivities related to the manufac turing industry. This seems to influenc e working c hildren not to c onsider educ ation as a mec hanism to improve their labour and living c onditions. Regarding the effec ts of c hild labour on educ ation and their relationship, the figures indic ate that the younger the c hild and the fewer the hours worked, there are more possibilities of remaining in sc hool. In the 5 to 9 age group, sc hool attendanc e is 91.7%, whereas in the 15 to 17 age group, 62.9% do not attend sc hool. Sc hool exc lusion affec ts men proportionately more: 47.7% of boys do not go to sc hool in c omparison to 37.4% of girls. Exc lusion and lagging signific antly affec t working adolesc ents who are between 15 and 17 years old. Sixty-two point five perc ent of this age group is not attending sc hool and 70.5% of those who are, are behind in their sc hooling. Seventy-nine point five perc ent of the working population who does not go to sc hool is between 15 and 17 years old. Regarding the reasons for not attending sc hool, the most c ommon is lac k of interest in formal educ ation. The figures also indic ate that most of the working population who does not attend sc hool %-- lives in rural areas. There are 9,666 c hildren who are seeking work and who are not in sc hool, 91.1% of them in the 15 to 17 age group. There is also a population under 18 who neither works nor studies, some 67,259 people. viii

9 In c omparing the c onditions of ec onomic ally ac tive c hildren with the educ ational possibilities offered by the Ministry of Public Educ ation (MEP), it bec omes c lear that the formal system does not adapt to the c onditions, interests, and requirements of this population. In this sense, the development of several informal educ ational alternatives are a signific ant c ontribution to the improvement of educ ational c overage, espec ially the alternative educ ation programmes suc h as Aula Abierta (Open Sc hool), Nuevas Oportunidades (New Opportunities), and Centros e Institutos de Educ ac ión de Adultos (CINDEA) [Adult Educ ation Centres and Institutes]. The defic ienc ies regarding infrastruc ture, teac hing materials, teac hers training, and ac c essibility in public educ ation affec t sc hool permanenc e and the quality of the sc hooling rec eived, sinc e there is no c onsistenc y between the partic ular c onditions, expec tations, and educ ational needs of working c hildren and the educ ational supply. In fac t, the defic ienc ies in the educ ational system turn into obstac les that, very often, do not allow ac c essing an educ ation in ac c ord with soc iety s c urrent needs. To guarantee the right to educ ation on the part of c hildren involved in ec onomic ac tivities, the government of Costa Ric a has to c onsider the different realities in the c ountry and take into ac c ount geographic, ec onomic, c ultural, and gender issues. In addition, the evaluation or grading system needs improvement. Sinc e it is standardised in nature, it does not take into c onsideration the diverse c onditions of the student population and does not assess the real ac quisition of knowledge and suc c ess of the teac hing-learning proc ess. The educ ational system should fac e the c hallenge of democ ratising educ ation, in the sense of looking for mec hanisms that would allow an effec tive partic ipation of c hildren, their parents, and the c itizens, in general, in the design of study plans and programmes, grading mec hanisms, and responsibility sharing so that the c hild population have ac c ess to the sc hooling system in any of the modes available. The alloc ation of more resourc es that would lead to a qualitative improvement in the national educ ational system and an expansion of its c overage to reac h a larger population, would make sc hooling ac tually respond to c hildren s expec tations and partic ular needs as well as the c ountry s development. ix

10 1. COSTA RICA S SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONTEXT, A SCENARIO FOR CHILDREN S WORK The Multiple Purpose Household Survey (EHPM) c arried out by the National Institute of Statistic s and Censuses (INEC) between July and August of 2002 inc luded a c hild ac tivity module for those 5-17 years old, through whic h updated information on the living c onditions of working c hildren was gathered. Child labour in Costa Ric a is a phenomenon that has not been studied in depth until rec ently, despite the fac t that c hildren have traditionally supported the family ec onomy, both remunerated and without pay, in rural and urban c ontexts. It was due to international dec larations and of the c reation of national laws to safeguard the rights and integrity of the people under 18 years old that the problem of c hild labour bec ame visible in Costa Ric a and was identified as a prac tic e that in many c ases attempts against the integral development of the c hildren that prevents them from enjoying their basic rights, suc h as their right to educ ation. Ec onomic, c ultural, and soc ial fac tors explain the oc c urrenc e of c hild labour and, at the same time, the possibilities of having ac c ess to free and c ompulsory educ ation for the whole population. However, poverty is identified as the main c ause of c hild labour, sinc e families with unmet basic needs, due to their own situation, c annot envisage alternatives to improve their ec onomic inc ome. Thus, the solution they see to their immediate problem is the inc orporation of most of the members of their household in produc tive ac tivities. Therefore, it is important to review some information on the soc ial and ec onomic c ontext of Costa Ric a, whic h is the sc enario within whic h c hild labour oc c urs. 1.1 The population Ac c ording to estimates of population growth in the last 10 years, Costa Ric a s population grew from 3 million inhabitants in the year 1992 to about four million in The National Population Census c arried out in 2000 by INEC revealed that the c ountry had a population of 3,925,331 inhabitants and for 2002 the estimates indic ate that the population grew to 3,997,883 inhabitants, of whic h 50.4% are women and 49.6% are men. The urban areas have the largest population, about 59.0% of the total, while the remaining 41.0% lives in rural areas. Table 1 shows the distribution of the population by region. With a surfac e of 51,100 square kilometres, the population density in Costa Ric a for 2002 is 78.3 inhabitants per square kilometre. 1

11 Table 1 Total country population, by region Region Total Population (absolute Total Population (relative numbers) numbers) Central 2,564, % Chorotega 312, % Pac ífic o Central 210, % Brunc a 310, % Huetar Atlántic a 385, % Huetar Norte 214, % Total 3,997, % Sourc e: INEC, Multiple Purpose Household Survey, July 2002 The group between 0 and 17 years represents 36.7 % of the total population, as shown in Table 2. That is, c hildren c omprise the most numerous population group. As will be explained later, people under 18 years old have c harac teristic s and needs that are different from those of the rest of the population. This is due to the fac t that they are in a stage of growth, development, and learning and do not yet have the physic al or emotional maturity to fac e the c hallenges of adulthood. For this reason, ac c ording to the Code of Children and Adolesc ents (Law No. 7739), c hildren are, first of all, the responsibility of their parents or c ustodians, and sec ond, of the Costa Ric an State. The State is in the obligation of making sure that boys and girls enjoy the c onditions that allow them to have ac c ess to their rights. Area and age group Table 2 Total population, by sex, by area and age group Number Total Sex Total Male Female Percentage Sex Male Female Country total 3,997,883 1,983,715 2,014, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,400 97, , and older 218, , , Unknown 8,509 4,763 3, Urban 2,359,158 1,147,227 1,211, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,

12 ,972 58,612 73, and older 140,098 60,385 79, Unknown 6,043 3,030 3, Rural 1,638, , , , ,547 99, ,899 97,829 95, , , , , , , , , , , , , ,896 68,691 60, ,428 38,861 37, and older 78,018 41,111 36, Unknown 2,466 1, Sourc e: INEC, Multiple Purpose Household Survey, July 2002 Other demographic indic ators show that the total population growth 1 dec reased in the last dec ade, passing from 21.8 per 1000 in 1992 to 18.8 per 1000 in The birth rate, that is, the number of annual births for every thousand inhabitants, was 17.4 in 2002, 2.5 points below its level in The downward trend in the birth rate has been present sinc e the nineties, whic h evidenc es a reduc tion in the number of pregnanc ies and the size of the family. Ac c ess to more information about reproduc tive health and easy ac c ess to various birth c ontrol methods, in addition to the entry of women in the labour market, are elements that may explain the reduc tion in the population growth. Child mortality in 2002 was 11.1 deaths of c hildren under one year old for every thousand live births. 1.2 Population s socio-economic situation Employed population, poverty levels, and income 2 Ac c ording to the Human Development Report 2003, Costa Ric a was among the 53 c ountries of the world with high human development, oc c upying position number 42. And out of 94 c ountries ranked, it oc c upies position 4 regarding the human 1 The total population growth rate refers to the growth of the population between two time periods, based on the exponential growth of the population and using the formula r = {[ln (Nt/ NO)] / t}*1000, where r = result, ln = natural logarithm, Nt= = final population, NO = initial population, and t = time period selec ted. 2 Ac c ording to the definitions used by INEC, non-poor households are those that have a per c apita inc ome that allows them to c over their basic food and non-food needs, that is, their per c apita inc ome is equal to or higher than the poverty line. On the other hand, households that do not meet their basic needs are those that have a per c apita inc ome under the poverty line, but equal to or higher than the per c apita c ost of the basic shopping basket (CBA). The per c apita c ost of the poverty line for 2002 was 28,895 (US$80.80) for the urban areas and 22,714 (US$63.52) for the c ountry s rural areas. 3

13 poverty index. In Latin Americ a, only Barbados, Argentina, and Uruguay rank higher than Costa Ric a in human development. Close to it, but in a lower position, Chile takes up plac e 43, Cuba position 52, Mexic o 55, and Panama Despite its high ranking ac c ording to the world human development index, 20.6% of Costa Ric a s population lives in poverty, and 5.7% of its inhabitants live in extreme poverty. The open unemployment rate 4 reac hed 6.4% in In the 12 to -24 year age group, open unemployment was 13.8% nationwide and 17.2% among women. 5 These c onditions, in addition to produc tion in different sec tors, as will be explained later, evidenc e a limited ec onomic growth that only benefits those who have more resourc es, a minority that still owns the c ountry s wealth 6. In this setting, most of the population is exc luded from alternatives that would allow it to improve its living c onditions by having ac c ess to better labour opportunities and better inc ome. The evolution of the minimum wage shows an ac tual rate 7 of negative variation in the years 2000 and 2002, with figures of 1.0% and 1.1%, respec tively. The average inc ome shows a similar trend, and in 2002 the minimum salary was equivalent to US$216 a month. In the medium-term, the ac tual minimum wage does not show a dec reasing trend if c omparing the data for 2002 and However, as of 1998, its evolution in real terms prac tic ally stalled Economic growth in the last years and the structure of the economy In 2002, the per c apita Gross Domestic Produc t (GDP) in Costa Ric a reac hed 4,130 US dollars. It has been prac tic ally stalled sinc e 2000 as a result of lower ec onomic growth 9. On the other hand, public financ es show a defic ient performanc e whic h limits investment in soc ial polic ies and programmes. In 2002, the overall public 3 UNDP. Human Development Report / hdr2003/ espanol/ pdf/ presskit/ HDR03_PKS_HDI.pdf 4 Annex 1 inc ludes the definitions used by INEC for eac h of the indic ators regarding the labour forc e and poverty. 5 INEC. Household Survey 2002, main results, c harts 6 and th Report on the State of the Nation 7 The real salary indic ates the quantity of goods and servic es that c an be purc hased with the money rec eived, so that if the workers wages inc rease, but at the same time, the pric es of the produc ts s/ he purc hases inc rease, the real salary does not c hange, and if the inc rease in the pric e of goods is higher than the rise in salaries, the ac tual rate of variation is negative. Daily La Nac ión, page 26, Sec tion A, July 11, Based on the figures of the 8 th Report on the State of the Nation, Statistic s Volume, Minimum Wage Dec ree July 2002; MIDEPLAN SIDES. Average wages c orrespond to that registered by the Household Survey for the totality of the employed people with a known inc ome. 9 PROCESOS. Hac ia dónde vamos? Ec onomía y Desigualdad en Costa Ric a [Where are we going? Ec onomy and Inequality in Costa Ric a ]. San José, Costa Ric a: Asoc iac ión Programa Centroameric ano para la Sostenibilidad Democ rátic a (PROCESOS), s.f., pp. 28, 61 4

14 sec tor defic it reac hed 4.8% of the GDP, while for the c entral government it inc reased from 2.2% in 1999 to 4.1% in The evolution of the defic it of the Central Government along the period was c harac terised by unsustainability of the long-term indebtedness. As of 1998, the ac c umulated perc entage of domestic and external debt inc reased as a perc entage of GDP from 19.5% to 36.2% in In the long- and medium-term, signific ant c hanges have taken plac e in the employment struc ture (Table 3) and in the c omposition of the main employment sec tors. For instanc e, in 1960, agric ulture represented 25% of GDP, perc entage that has been dec reasing to 18% in and 7.3% in The manufac turing sec tor is the most important within the sec ondary sec tor; however, the partic ipation in this sec tor has been dec reasing sinc e 1990 when it represented 18.0%, to the point that in 2002, it only represents 14.3%. Sinc e the nineties, the main trend was not only the c ontinuity in the reduc tion of agric ulture s relative weight as a sourc e of employment in national produc tion, but also the reduc tion in the partic ipation in c ommunity, soc ial, and personal servic es from 26.7% to 22.6% between 2000 and Table 3 Distribution of the employed population, by sector and industry (in %) Sector and type of activity Primary sector Agric ulture Secondary sector Mining and quarrying Manufac turing industry Construc tion Tertiary sector Elec tric ity, water, and gas supply Trade, repair, restaurants, hotels Transport, storage, and c ommunic ations Financ ial establishments, insuranc e, enterprises Soc ial and personal servic es; public administration Unspec ified ac tivities Total Sourc e: INEC, Multiple Purpose Household Survey, Basic Figures on the Labour Forc e, July 2001 and Ibid., p VII Report on the State of the Nation, 2001, p INEC, Multiple Purpose Household Survey, Basic Figures on the Labour Forc e, Numbers 5, 6, and Ibid. 5

15 The struc ture of employment shows a marked partic ipation proc ess in the tertiary sec tor, as well as a reduc tion of employment in agric ultural ac tivities and a lower partic ipation of employment in industry. Agric ulture dec reased its partic ipation among the employed population from 17.3% in 2000 to 15.9% in 2002, while the tertiary sec tor inc reased from 60.4% to 63.0% in the same period, and industry dec reased from 14.8% to 14.3%. 1.3 Literacy The population s literac y rates evidenc e signific ant progress in the last 50 years. Illiterac y was reduc ed from 21.2% among the population over 10 years old in 1953 to 4.8% in 2000, being 5.0% for men and 4.5% for women. This, however, does not exc lude important defic ienc ies in a signific ant part of the population. When the number of people over 25 years old without sc hooling (6.7%) are added to the 19.0% who did not c omplete primary educ ation, it is c lear that a fourth of the population has a low educ ational level (Table 4). An important ac hievement in Costa Ric a s soc ial development that is worth noting is gender equity, as sc hooling levels are very similar between men and women. Table 4 Schooling level of the population 25 years old and over by sex (in %) Schooling Men Women Total Without any sc hooling Inc omplete primary Subtotal without instruc tion and inc omplete primary Primary c omplete Sec ondary Inc omplete Sec ondary Complete Community College University Unknown Total Sourc e: Based on INEC, Multiple Purpose Household Survey, July Population s access to basic services Regarding ac c ess to basic servic es, ac c ording to estimates for , health c are reac hed to 3,933,975 inhabitants, that is, prac tic ally 100% of the population. Vac c ination c overage among c hildren reac hed 88.5% of the c hild population. The population with ac c ess to piped water was estimated at c lose to 100% and c overage of elec tric servic es reac hed 97% of the population. Regarding the health c onditions of the Costa Ric an population, the data show positive results in the medium and long-term. Child mortality is 10.8 per every thousand births in 2001, whic h represents almost 7 times less than the 67.0 per 14 8 th Report on the State of the Nation. Statistic s Volume. pages 325, 354 6

16 thousand in Life expec tanc y at birth is 77.7 years, while the perc entage of births rec eiving medic al attention is 95.6%. Vac c ination c overage is high, with figures c lose to or higher than 90%. Health insuranc e c overage is 87.5%. This figure, however, is lower if rather than using the administrative rec ords of the CCSS (Soc ial Sec urity Authority), data from the Population Census is used. Ac c ording to the latter, 81.8% of the c ountry s population is c overed by the soc ial sec urity. As a result of the c hanges in the epidemiologic al patterns among the population, overall mortality at present is c onc entrated on c hronic illnesses and tumours. 7

17 2. THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM IN COSTA RICA 2.1 Legislation that regulates public education Several legal instruments refer to educ ation in Costa Ric a. The Politic al Constitution of Costa Ric a of 1949 and its amendments set forth the overall regulatory framework for the c ountry s public educ ation. 15 Its main provisions regarding educ ation are the following: Artic le 78- Pre-sc hool educ ation and the general basic educ ation [grades 1-9] are c ompulsory. These and the diversified or high-sc hool educ ation [grades 10-11] in the public system are free and paid for by the Nation. In state-run educ ation, inc luding higher educ ation, public expenses will not fall below six perc ent (6%) of gross domestic produc t per year, ac c ording to the law, without detriment of the provisions in artic les 84 and 85 of this Constitution 16 (Constitutional Amendment 7676 approved on July 23, 1997). A previous c onstitutional amendment of the year 1973 defined as c ompulsory the general basic educ ation, that is, six years of primary educ ation and three years of middle sc hool. In the past, only elementary educ ation was c ompulsory (MEP, 1997; c hap. 8, page 1). The innovation introduc ed in 1997 c onsisted in inc luding pre-sc hool educ ation and setting public expenditure to be no less than 6% of GDP for educ ation. Other artic les of the Politic al Constitution that make referenc e to educ ation go from 77 to 82: Artic le 77- Public educ ation will be organised as an integral proc ess c orrelated in its diverse c yc les, from pre-sc hool to the university. Artic le 79- Freedom of teac hing is guaranteed. However, every educ ational c entre shall be under the State s inspec tion. Artic le 80- Private initiatives in educ ational matters will be promoted by the State as provided for by the law. Artic le 81- The general direc tion of public educ ation c orresponds to a superior c ounc il integrated as provided for by the law and c haired by the Ministry of the area. Artic le 82- The State shall provide food and uniforms to indigent sc hool c hildren, ac c ording to the law. 15 Politic al Constitution of November 7, 1949, and its amendments (up to June 2002), Title VII Educ ation and Culture, online version, Dr. Rodolfo Saborío Valverde at / o.c r/ c esdepu/ nbdp/ c opol2.htm 16 This artic le also states that the State shall fac ilitate the pursuit of higher studies to those who lac k the financ ial resourc es. The assignment of sc holarships and stipends will be in c harge of the Ministry of the area through the organization provided for by the law. 8

18 Artic le 86- The State will train teac hers by means of spec ial institutes, the University of Costa Ric a, and the other higher educ ation institutes (Constitutional Amendment 5697 of June 9, 1975). The Fundamental Law of Educ ation of set forth more spec ific regulations. In its Artic le 1, it states that every inhabitant of the Republic has the right to educ ation and the State has the obligation to offer it in the broadest and most adequate form. The Central Americ an Convention on the Basic Unific ation of Educ ation of 1962, in addition to defining several requirements and c onditions to unify educ ation in the region s c ountries, in its Chapter I, Artic le 25, item 7, states that...the signatory States dec ide to set a minimum of two hundred days a year of ac tual c lasses, with a daily sc hedule of no less than five hours. Moreover, they will use all the resourc es at hand and, as allowed by the c irc umstanc es, gradually eliminate the c ourses struc tured in a single shift, a double period, or require attending c lasses on alternate sessions. 18 The objec tive of this provision was to extend c lassroom time for more and better learning, as well as expand the educ ational supply in terms of a higher number of educ ational c entres that would allow regular attendanc e in the same sc hedule. However, it is important to point out that the two hundred sc hool days agreement was not implemented until the Rodríguez Ec heverría Administration ( ), almost forty years after the Convention was signed and published. Furthermore, there is a lac k of infrastruc ture, staff, and budget that make it impossible to eliminate the alternate session shifts (e.g. c lasses are taken one day in the morning and another day in the afternoon). Finally, the Code of Children and Adolesc ents 19, in effec t sinc e February 1998, is the legal instrument that at present regulates, protec ts, and sets forth the rights and duties of the population under eighteen years old, as well as the responsibilities of the various governmental institutions, parents, and c ustodians to oversee c hildren s well-being. In its Title II, Chapter V, Right to Educ ation, it states: Artic le 56 Right to develop their full potential Underage persons will have the right to rec eive educ ation aimed at the development of their full potential. The training offered to them shall be addressed at the full exerc ise of their c itizenship, teac hing them respec t for human rights, own c ultural values, and c are for the natural environment within a framework of peac e and solidarity. This legal instrument appoints the State to design national polic ies regarding educ ation, guarantee quality learning and equal opportunities that promote sc ientific, tec hnologic al, artistic, and c ultural learning as well as ethic al and moral values, and the dissemination of the rights of underage people to prevent risk 17 / r/ LeyFundamental.html 18 Central Americ an Convention on the Basic Unific ation of Educ ation, Code of Childhood and Adolesc enc e, Law No. 7739, February

19 fac tors for the integral development of this population. In its Artic le 59, Right to free and c ompulsory educ ation, the Code states: Pre-sc hool educ ation, general basic educ ation, and high sc hool will be free, c ompulsory, and paid for by the State. Ac c ess to c ompulsory and free educ ation will be a fundamental right. The lac k of governmental ac tions to fac ilitate it and guarantee it will be c onsidered a violation of the Right and shall be liable before the c ompetent authority. Artic les 60 to 72 state that the Ministry of Public Educ ation (MEP) is the institution responsible for taking the nec essary measures for underage people to enjoy their right to educ ation, regardless of their soc io-ec onomic c ondition, nationality, ethnic group, or beliefs. Moreover, the right to tec hnic al educ ation, spec ial educ ation, parents and learners partic ipation in the educ ational proc ess, MEP s duties, disc iplinary proc edures, c orrec tive ac tions, prohibition of disc riminatory prac tic es, and students rights, are also outlined. Chapter VII Spec ial Protec tion Regime for Working Adolesc ents establishes 15 as the minimum age to exerc ise the right to work, together with a series of regulations that guarantee that working adolesc ents do not risk their physic al, mental, or emotional health or endanger their integral development. These regulations inc lude a maximum daily work sc hedule of 6 hours and 36 hours weekly. It prohibits c hildren from working in mines and quarries, unhealthy and dangerous plac es, bars and other plac es that sell alc oholic beverages, as well as their partic ipation in ac tivities that endanger their life and that of other people, their being responsible for other people and performing jobs with heavy mac hinery, polluting substanc es, or exc essive noise. Artic le 87 Work and Educ ation reaffirms the right and obligation of working c hildren to educ ation and states that their job must not interfere with their attendanc e to educ ational institutions. MEP is assigned the responsibility of designing modes and sc hedule to fac ilitate working adolesc ents ac c ess to educ ation and states that educ ational authorities are responsible for making sure that adolesc ents jobs will not interfere with their attendanc e or performanc e in sc hool, as well as their obligation to report to the National Direc torate of General Labour Inspec tion of the Ministry of Labour and Soc ial Sec urity any labour-related situation that affec ts the students. Artic le 88 of the Code forc es employers to provide working adolesc ents with the fac ilities to attend sc hool, and Artic le 89 states the right of working adolesc ents to training. It is important to point out that the Code of Children and Adolesc ents establishes for the first time the relationship between educ ation and work as part of the rights of the people under eighteen, as well as the regulations to guarantee their implementation and enforc ement. The relevanc e of this legal instrument lies prec isely in the fac t that it takes into c onsideration c hildren s needs and that it 10

20 states that c hildren and adolesc ents are subjec ts of rights, with duties and obligations. It also states that parents or c ustodians and the State and soc iety in general are responsible for the people between 0 and 17 years old and should make sure that their rights are protec ted and their well-being safeguarded. 2.2 Country s investment in education Public expenditure on educ ation showed a relative upward trend in the nineties, as it inc reased from 3.9% of the GDP in 1990 to 5.2% in 2001, whereas overall soc ial expenditure inc reased from 16.1% of the GDP to 19.0% in the same period. It should be noted that the figure c orresponding to educ ation remains under the 6% set forth in amendment 78 of the Politic al Constitution of The internal c omposition of soc ial expenditure shows a slight inc rease in the perc entage aimed at educ ation, whic h inc reased from 24.0% in 1990 to 27.6% in The main part of soc ial expenditure c orresponds to soc ial sec urity and welfare whic h inc ludes the spec ial pension regimes. Spending on health is the sec ond highest with 28.8% of total soc ial expenditure. The internal distribution of spending on educ ation shows the following c harac teristic s: General educ ation, whic h inc ludes pre-sc hool, primary, and sec ondary educ ation as well as spec ial educ ation and open educ ation, represents 69.1% of the total expenses in educ ation. Community c ollege and university educ ation takes 21.3%, voc ational training uses 5.9%, and study inc entives (sc hool diners and other programmes) take up 3.6% 20. In general educ ation, 96.1% of the expenses c orresponds to c urrent expenses and 88.8% to salaries, while investment is only 3.9%, and tec hing materials take up 1.0% of the total 21. Ac c ording to the estimates of the Budget Planning Department 22 of MEP, in 2002 the government invested a total of US$ for every elementary-sc hool student and US$ for eac h high-sc hool student during the year Trejos, Juan Diego. La equidad de la inversión soc ial en el 2000 [Equity in soc ial investment in 2000]. Paper for the 8 th Report on the State of the Nation. San José, Costa Ric a: June 2002, p.p. 4, Loc. Cit. 22 Information provided by Mr. Carlos Badilla Chaves, Budget Planning Department, MEP. 23 These figures are c omputed on the basis of the investment made in infrastruc ture, staff salaries, administrative expenses, sc hool diners, teac hing materials, and sc holarships that MEP made in the year. Then, the total amount is divided by the number of students enrolled. 11

21 Regarding investment in teac hing materials, infrastruc ture, and teac hers salaries, for 2003, it is estimated that the total expenses will amount to US$2,637, In the c ase of the sc holarship system, for 2002, the National Sc holarship Fund (FONABE) granted 37,334 sc holarships to c hildren, representing 82.0% of the total. For 2003 the figure inc reased to 39,517 sc holarships for c hildren representing 89.9% of the total of sc holarships granted. It only assigned 126 sc holarships to elementary-sc hool students and 115 to high-sc hool students in the Open Basic General Educ ation Programme, whic h will be disc ussed later, 7 sc holarships for the Open Classroom Programme, and 42 sc holarships for students in the New Opportunities Programme. These figures illustrate the little support available to students in the educ ational programmes whic h are more ac c essible to working c hildren Coverage of the regular and alternative education systems Coverage rates in primary and sec ondary educ ation show some progress in the last years. In elementary sc hool, where the gross rate is above 100% due to the educ ational lag, there is an inc rease in the Sec ond Cyc le (from third to sixth grade), from 90.6% in 1990 to 99.6% in In this same c yc le, the net rate is lower by 10 perc entage points due to overage c hildren, although there was an inc rease in the net rate from 81.3% to 88.8% in the same period. At this level, attendanc e figures ac c ording to the Population Census and the Household Survey show that Costa Ric a is very c lose to universal c overage in elementary educ ation and that the gaps between the urban and rural areas and between the Central Region and the peripheral regions of the c ountry are small. In the urban area, sc hool attendanc e from 7 to 12 years of age is 97.4%, whereas in the rural area it is 93.6%, ac c ording to the Population Census of In the Central Region, attendanc e for the same age group is 97.6%, whereas in the peripheral regions it reac hes 96.5%, ac c ording to the Household Survey of There are no signific ant differenc es regarding sc hool attendanc e for men and women. Middle-sc hool c overage also showed a favourable trend in the last 10 years. The gross enrolment rate inc reased from 57.5% in 1992 to 65.6% in 2002, and the net rate passed from 50.3% in 1992 to 58.7% in In the period of diversified educ ation, whic h c orresponds to the end of sec ondary educ ation, c overage is lower, although it has also inc reased. In 2002, the gross rate in this c yc le was 48.4% and the net rate was 36.0%. Starting in the sec ondary level, geographic and soc ial differenc es in attendanc e rates are c learly marked. In 2002, attendanc e in urban areas for c hildren between 13 and 17 years old was 77.4%, in sharp c omparison to the rural area where 24 Information provided by Mr. Carlos Badilla Chaves, Budget Planning Department, MEP. 25 Information provided by Mr. Carlos Badilla Díaz, Head of the Unit of Proc esses and Information Management of the National Sc holarship Fund of the Ministry of Public Educ ation. 12

22 Sex and level of schooling Men attendanc e drops to 55.7%. In the Central Region, attendanc e in the same age group was 77.3%, dec reasing to 62.6% in the other regions. The data also show c ontrasts among adolesc ents ac c ording to the sc hooling of the head of the household, sinc e 97.6% of adolesc ents from homes in whic h the head has c ollege educ ation attend sc hool, in c ontrast to 57.2% of the youngsters from homes in whic h the head has no instruc tion or inc omplete elementary educ ation. Regarding sex, there are no signific ant differenc es between male and female rates. Some differenc es seem to favour women, for example after 12 years old the net c overage in sec ondary educ ation is higher for women. This c ould mean a lower educ ational lag (Table 5). From 6 to 11 years old, the net c overage rate by sex is very similar for men and women. Table 5 Net schooling rates in the formal educational system by age, by sex Age Primary Sec ondary Women Primary Sec ondary Sourc e: Statistic s Department, MEP. Expansion of the educ ational system 2001 (Table 94). 26 The development of several informal educ ation alternatives is a signific ant c ontribution to the improvement of educ ational c overage. The gross enrolment rate in sec ondary educ ation inc reased by 9.8 perc entage points from 65.6% to 75.4% in 2002, while the net rate inc reased by 4.8 points from 58.7% to 63.5%. In sec ondary educ ation, the main alternative educ ation programmes are Open Classroom, New Opportunities, and Adult Educ ation Centres and Institutions (CINDEA), whic h will be disc ussed later. 2.4 Students academic performance Ac ademic performanc e is measured ac c ording to the perc entage of students who pass the grade eac h year with regards to the final registration for the year in question. In the primary sc hool level, around 90% of students definitely pass the grade, while in sec ondary sc hool the proportion is c lose to 80%. The lower performanc e in high sc hool c orresponds to seventh grade, the first level in this c yc le, with 75.5% of students passing in 2001, whic h indic ates that one of every four 26 Population figures used as referenc e c ome from CELADE. As of 2002, MEP estimates the c overage data, based on the population estimates of CCP and INCE, whic h in turn are based on the Population Census The c overage data by sex were not inc luded by MEP in its 2002 statistic s. 13