Chapter VI SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF WOMEN AGRICULTURAL LABOUR

Chapter VI SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF WOMEN AGRICULTURAL LABOUR

This Chapter presents socio-economic characteristics of the sample respondents. Agriculture labour is provided mainly by socially and economically marginalised sections of the society. The primary objective of the Indian planning is to ensure fuller opportunities for work and better living to economically and socially backward sections particularly rural poor depending on agriculture. Since independence, the government had initialized number of development programmes to improve the economic conditions of the agricultural labour particularly women. Various studies revealed that conditions of women agricultural labour have not improved even after six decades of planning. The impact of planning process on women agricultural labour is not uniform throughout the country. The impact varies from state to state and region to region within a state. There are considerable disparities in economic conditions of the women agricultural labour across different regions as well as social groups. In order to understand the impact of various developmental programmes, it is necessary to analyze the social and economic conditions of the agricultural women labour. An analysis of socio-economic conditions of sample women agricultural labour will give an idea about the status of women agricultural labour. The socio-economic conditions of the sample agricultural labour include caste, literacy, age, family size, residential accommodation, access to civic amenities, consumption expenditure, income, assets and liabilities. 6.1 Caste Most of the women agricultural labour belong to the depressed classes which are socially and economically backward and have been neglected for 198

ages. Table - 6.1 shows social group composition of the sample respondents. It is evident from the table that huge percentage of the sample agricultural labour are from socially depressed communities, viz., BC, SC and ST. In other words, of the sample surveyed, about 46 per cent of the respondents are from Schedule Castes. In the study area, Schedule Caste women are found to be in the lowest status of the social hierarchy. The proportion of Schedule Tribes in the present study is low (8 per cent) due to the fact that Schedule Tribe households in the sample villages are found to be very few. Backward Caste women are placed in a better status in social hierarchy when compared to Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe women who constituted nearly 36 per cent of total sample agricultural women labour. Forward Caste women (9.30 per cent) belong to peasant communities whose socio-economic conditions are better than the rest of the women labour. Thus, the study comprises of respondents from all social categories, namely, forward castes (OC), backward classes (BC), Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST). In the present study, majority of the respondents are from BC and SC categories. 199

Table - 6.1 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RESPONDENTS BY SOCIAL GROUP Social Group Frequency Per cent Forward Caste 28 9.30 BC 109 36.30 SC 139 46.30 ST 24 8.00 Total 300 100.00 Source: Primary data 200

6.2 Age Age, one of the demographic variables, has its impact on level of living of the household. It is possible to hypothesis that income for family member will be higher at marriage, when both partners work, income fall as children are added and again increase as children mature from cost into contribution as household earners. Thus productive capacity of a worker depends on his/her age. The ability to work is more between the ages 15 to 45 years. The income of a worker depends upon the ability to work hard in the fields. Distribution of the sample respondents by age groups across the social group is furnished in Table- 6.2. It is depicted from the table that majority of the sample women labour are participating in agricultural activities in the age group of 26-35 years (35 per cent). At the next level, it is obvious from the table that age of the around 22 per cent of the sample respondents ranges between the age group 36-45 followed by 20 per cent between the age group 18-25 and a few respondents are in the age group between 46-65 (11.7 per cent). The distribution of women labour in agriculture across the social groups shows that Scheduled Castes and Backward Castes women being 21 per cent, they are higher than the Forward Castes women labour belonging to the age group between 15-25 years. Most of the women labour working in agriculture are in the age group of 26-45 years. 201

Table 6.2 DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY AGE AND SOCIAL GROUP Caste category Age level Forward Caste Backward Caste SC ST Total 18-25 4 23 29 4 60 (14.3) (21.1) (20.9) (16.7) (20.0) 26-35 8 32 57 8 105 (28.6) (29.4) (41.0) (33.3) (35.0) 36-45 8 26 27 4 65 (28.6) (23.9) (19.4) (16.7) (21.7) 46-55 4 12 15 4 35 (14.3) (11.0) (10.8) (16.7) (11.7) 56-65 4 16 11 4 35 (14.3) (14.7) (7.9) (16.7) (11.7) Total 28 109 139 24 300 Note: Figures in the parentheses represent percentages. Source: Computed from Primary data 202

6.3 Literacy level The level of literacy is one of the important indicators of social and economic development of the people. The standards of living of population depend upon level of literacy and level of technical training attained by the people. The Indian constitution directed the government to provide free and compulsory education to all children up to the age of 14 by 1960. Even after 60 years of planned economic development much has not been achieved in this front. Even today large numbers of people are without elementary education. Its economic backwardness, less social awakening among people, historical inertia, its interior location and rough terrain all have added to its low literacy. The literacy rate in rural areas in Andhra Pradesh among women is still lower when compared to men. It is very low among Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Backward class women. Illiteracy is the root cause for backwardness of the rural women in agriculture. Female literacy rate is directly related to levels of adoption of new agricultural technology and development. The table 6.3 indicates that 66.3 per cent of the respondents are illiterates. Among the literates, 19.7 per cent of the respondents have up to primary education, followed by only 5 per cent of the respondent s have middle/high school, and 5 per cent of the respondents have tenth and intermediate education. It may be concluded that majority of the respondents are illiterates. The analysis reveals that the majority of the agricultural labour households are unable to spend any money on education of their children and only a few of their children attend 203

Table - 6.3 EDUCATIONAL LEVEL OF THE RESPONDENTS Educational level Per cent Illiterate 66.3 Literate 4 Primary 19.7 Middle/High 5 Tenth passed/plus 2 5 Total 100 Source: Primary data 204

schools. This is mainly due to the low paying capacity and lack of interest towards education among the parents. The majority of the parents opined that education is a luxury for them and their miserable economic conditions compel them to make their children earn something for the family. 6.4 Residential accommodation Type of house, in which the respondent lives, determines the economic status. Distribution of women labour household by type of house is presented in table 6.4. It reveals that majority of the sample households i.e. 48.7 per cent (146) are living in Katcha houses and 32.7 per cent (98) sample households living in Semi-pucca houses. Only a little percentage i.e 17.3 per cent (52) sample households living in pucca houses. The analyses of the type of house in which respondent living across the social groups reveals that 28.6 per cent of the Forward Castes women labour are living in pucca houses followed by Scheduled Castes and Scheduled tribe, i.e., 16.5 per cent and 33.3 per cent respectively, nearly 51.4 per cent Backward Castes are living in Semi-pucca houses followed by Forward castes and Scheduled Castes i.e., 28.6 per cent and 21.6 per cent respectively, nearly 61.9 per cent Scheduled Castes are living in Katcha houses followed by Scheduled tribe and Forward Castes i.e., 50 per cent and 43 per cent. A few Backward Castes respondents have no house and they are living in rented houses. 205

Table - 6.4 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RESPONDENTS BY TYPE OF HOUSE Type of house Caste category of the respondent Forward Backward SC ST Caste Caste Total Pucca 8 13 23 8 52 (28.6) (11.9) (16.5) (33.3) (17.3) Semi-pucca 8 56 30 4 98 (28.6) (51.4) (21.6) (16.7) (32.7) Katcha 12 36 86 12 146 (42.9) (33.0) (61.9) (50.0) (48.7) Houseless 0 4 0 0 4 (0.00) (3.7) (0.00) (0.00) (1.3) Total 28 109 139 24 300 (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) Note: Figures in the parentheses represent percentages. Source: Computed from Primary data 206

It may be concluded that the housing conditions of the respondents reveals that 80 per cent of the women agricultural labour are living in poor conditions. These small houses have to accommodate 6-7 members of a family. The katcha houses without proper ventilation and adequate accommodation largely impeding the social and psychological bearing of the female agricultural labour whose reproductive and domestic functions are badly affected. Those who possess cattle give shelter to them right in front of their houses and this contributes to inconvenience and unhygienic. It indicates that female agricultural labour do not have access to proper housing. This reveals their low level of standard of living. Sometimes in the absence of the housing facility female agricultural laborers take as shelter in the rented houses with a small single room hardly accommodate the families with great difficulty. Sanitation is the major problem faced by the women labour. This creates some health problems to women. 6.5 Type of family It is observed from the Table - 6.5 that majority of the women agricultural labour belonged to Nuclear family (86.3 per cent), 13.7 per cent belonged to joint family. Across the groups, 23.7 per cent belong to the Scheduled Castes labour are in joint families followed by Forward Castes and Backward Castes i.e., 14.3 per cent and 3.7 per cent. Nearly 96.3 per cent of Backward Castes women belonged to Nuclear family followed by Forward and Scheduled Castes labour i.e., 85.7 and 76.3 per cent. 207

Table - 6.5 TYPE OF FAMILY OF THE RESPONDENTS Type of family Caste category of the respondent Forward Backward SC ST Caste Caste Total Joint 4 4 33 0 41 (14.3) (3.7) (23.7) (0.00) (13.7) Nuclear 24 105 106 24 259 (85.7) (96.3) (76.3) (86.3) Total 28 109 139 24 300 (100) Note: Figures in the parentheses represent percentages. Source: Computed from Primary data 208

The tendency among the agricultural labour toward the nuclear families is more prominent and such a tendency will reinforce the effects of high mortality and the possible high fertility levels to keep the average family size low. It is observed from the field study that the labour market characterized by a high degree of unemployment does not confer any special advantage to a joint family. The uncertainty of finding work, especially in lean seasons may make intra-families income sharing difficult for joint families. That is why the agricultural labour household in the study area get divided more frequently than others often marriage of younger member. 6.6 Civic amenities Access to better civic facilities is a symbol for high standard of living. The provision of facilities like, availability of drinking water, sanitation and electricity indicate the living standard of the respondents. Table - 6.6 shows that largest percentage of the women agricultural labour has electricity connection (81.7 per cent). Even though government is providing electric connect in free of cost 18 per cent of the households do not have the electricity. Out of 300 women agricultural labour household 22 per cent have access to drinking water facility near their house and the remaining 78 per cent women labour depend on public tap or public hand pumps and other houses which is one Km away from the house. Nearly 27 per cent have drainage facility for their house remaining 73 per cent of respondents do not have any drainage facility; this clearly indicates the poor living condition of the respondents. 209

Table 6.6 DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY AMENITIES Amenities Forward Castes Caste category of the respondent Backward Castes Scheduled Castes Scheduled Tribes Total Electricity 28 101 92 24 245 (100.00) (92.7) (66.2) (100.00) (81.7) Drinking Water 12 (42.9) 27 (24.8) 22 (15.8) 4 (16.7) 65 (21.7) Drainage 16 27 39 0 82 (57.1) (24.8) (28.1) (0.00) (27.3) Note: Figures in the parentheses represent percentages. Source: Computed from Primary data 210

The access to civic amenities across the social groups reveals that deprivation is high among Schedule Caste and Backward Caste women agricultural labour households. Nearly 34 per cent of Schedule Caste women labour households do not have access to electricity. Similarly 84 per cent of Scheduled Caste and 75 per cent of Backward Caste women do not have access to drinking water nearby their house. Even among Forward Caste 57 per cent of the women labour household do not have access to drinking water facility near their house. Nearly 72 per cent of Schedule Caste women labour households and 75 per cent Backward Castes women labour household do not have access to drainage facility. Unhygienic conditions around the houses of the respondents are found. The unhygienic atmosphere is due to lack of proper sanitation facilities and using of the surrounding areas for toilet and washing purposes. Washing clothes, cleaning the utensils, taking bath in front of the house, also result in insanitation. Women are found going long distances, to draw water from the hand pumps or tanks to carry it home. This considerably affects their health and labour power. In the absence of minimum facilities, women labour are working hard in discharging their domestic work. The majority of the women expressed that no one bothered to think about their problems. 6.7 Consumer durables The possession of consumer durable goods represents the socioeconomic status of households. The distribution of households by the 211

possession of consumer durables across the social groups is presented in Table - 6.7. It is observed that among forward caste respondents, about 14 per cent have Radio, 78.6 per cent have T.V., 42.9 per cent have L.P. Gas, 85.7 per cent have Fan, 42.9 per cent have bicycles, 14.3 per cent have twowheeler, and 25 per cent have mobile phones. In Backward caste households, 14.7 per cent have Radio, 74.3 per cent have T.V., 46 per cent have L.P. Gas, 59 per cent have Fan, 40.4 per cent have Bicycle, and 22 per cent have mobile phones and a few per cent 3.7 have two wheeler. In Scheduled caste households 12.9 per cent Radio, 51.8 per cent have T.V., 22.3 per cent have L.P.G., 67 per cent have Fan, 38.1 per cent have Bicycle, 5.8 per cent have two wheeler and 19.4 per cent have mobile phones. In the Scheduled Tribe households 71 per cent have T.V., and 67 per cent have L.P. Gas. The data reveals that 64 per cent of the sample households have T.V. and remaining 36 per cent don t have any T.V. in their house. 36.3 per cent have L.P.Gas remaining 64 per cent don t have any gas connection in their house. Nearly 64.7 per cent have Fan in their house remaining 35 per cent don t have any fan facility in their house. Similarly 39.3 per cent household have bicycle remaining 61 per cent not have any bicycle and 5.3 per cent have two wheeler remaining 95 per cent not have two wheeler and 21 per cent have mobile phone remaining 81 per cent not have any mobile phone. It is found that T.V. and Electric fan have become important consumer goods. 212

Table 6.7 POSSESSION OF CONSUMER DURABLES Consumer goods Radio Caste category of the respondent Forward Caste 4 (14.3) Backward Caste 16 (14.7) S.C 18 (12.9) S.T 4 (16.7) Total 42 (14.0) T.V. 22 (78.6) 81 (74.3) 72 (51.8) 17 (70.8) 192 (64.0) L.P.G. 12 (42.9) 50 (46.0) 31 (22.3) 16 (66.7) 109 (36.3) Fan 24 (85.7) 64 (58.7) 93 (66.6) 13 (54.2) 194 (64.7) Bicycle 12 (42.9) 44 (40.4) 53 (38.1) 9 (37.5) 118 (39.3) Two Wheeler 4 (14.3) 4 (3.7) 8 (5.8) 0 (0.00) 16 (5.3) Mobile 7 (25.0) 24 (22.0) 27 (19.4) 5 (20.8) 63 (21.0) Note: Figures in the parentheses represent percentages. Source: Computed from Primary data 213

6.8 Distribution of sample households by Family size Apart from income, an important factor determines the level of living of household is its size. Size of the household is an important factor in pushing down the per capita income. Family size and its composition reveal the proportion of works and dependents in the family. Family size and its composition affects the income and consumption levels which in turn determines the level of living of the household. Family size affects the per capita consumption which in turn affects the health standard of women. The family size and its composition of women labour household across the social groups is presented in Table -6.8. The table shows that in Forward caste 36 per cent are male population, 44 per cent are female and 20 per cent are children in the women labour households. Nearly 68 per cent of the workers are working member and the remaining 32 per cent are dependents. The average family size is 3.6. In Backward caste community 32 per cent are male, 38.5 per cent are female and 29.8 per cent are children. Among them 64.7 per cent are workers and the remaining 35.3 per cent are dependents. The average size of the family is 3.2. In the Scheduled caste communities 33.8 per cent are male population, 39 per cent female population and 33.8 per cent are children. Nearly 64.5 per cent are workers and remaining 35.5 per cent of the population is dependents and the average size of the family is 4. In the Scheduled Tribe population 34.3 per cent are male, 37.3 per cent are female members and 28.3 per cent are children. Among them 66 per cent are workers and the remaining 34.3 are dependents and the average size of the family is 2.8. 214

Table 6.8 DISTRIBUTION OF SAMPLE HOUSEHOLDS BY FAMILY SIZE Sub- Castes Male Female Children Workers Non- Workers Total Population Avg. Family Size Forward Caste 36 (36.0) 44 (44.0) 20 (20.0) 68 (68.0) 32 (32.0) 100 3.6 Backward Caste 110 (31.8) 133 (38.5) 103 (29.8) 224 (64.7) 122 (35.3) 346 3.2 SC 188 (33.8) 217 (39.0) 151 (33.8) 359 (64.5) 197 (35.5) 556 4 ST 23 (34.3) 25 (37.3) 19 (28.3) 44 (65.7) 23 (34.3) 67 2.8 Note: Figures in the parentheses represent percentages. Source: Computed from Primary data 215

From the analysis it is evident that female ratio to the total is to be higher the male ratio in women labour households. This is contrary to the state general sex ratio where sex ratio is lower. The family size of the sample respondents is found to be lower than state average family size. It is evident he structure of the family unit in terms of earning member as well as dependents would determine the income and the well-being of the household. In the study area agricultural labour households with lower per capita income have not only longer family but also a higher dependency ratio that is large number of dependence per earners. At the given level of employment and wage rate per worker, it is not possible for on labour households to sustain more than two dependents. 6.9 Working conditions and number of working days The agricultural worker in general does not have continuity of work. On an average at national level in India a farm labour find employment for about 200 days in year and for the rest of the year is idle. Apart from this under employment is also found in agricultural sector. This type of unemployment and underemployment are two factors responsible for low income. This unemployment situated has been further aggravated with the use of machines in place of labour. Female labour too do not have continuous employment in agriculture. Female labour is not used in some operation like ploughing application of irrigation and pesticides. Number of days an average each of the sampled women labour gets employed is presented in table. 216

The table 6.9 reveals that Scheduled castes labour on an average 105 days working in agriculture, forward and backward castes respondents on an average 103 days working in agriculture and Scheduled tribes on an average 102 days working in agriculture and total on an average the employment is 104 days in agriculture this is very low to national average figures. In the absence of in non-agricultural employment in villages some female labour are forced to work even at low wages. The female agricultural laborers are overburdened with work both at home and at the work spot. Yet they undertake the job of purchasing food stuff. After collecting the wages from the land-owners, they go shopping either straight away from work spot or the next morning. The major items they purchase for daily consumption includes rice, oil and vegetables. As rice is the staple food, the major part of their wages and the other income of the family are spent on rice alone. As a consequence, they are left with only a little money. Hence many a time they satisfy themselves with taking the ground red chili powder mixed with salt and water in lieu of vegetables. The meager wages hardly entails them to go in for the paddy of good quality. Hence they always prefer low variety of food grains for consumption. They also prefer millets to rice as staple food many a time. It is considerably cheaper than rice and would be easily available in large quantities at a lower cost. 217

Table-6.9 AVERAGE NUMBER OF WORKING DAYS IN AGRICULTURE IN A YEAR Caste category Average working days in Agriculture Forward castes 103 Backward Castes 103 Scheduled Castes 105 Scheduled Tribes 102 Total 104 Source: Primary data 218

In the majority of the households, women discharge the executive responsibilities of family. The women collect the wages of their husbands to purchase the grains for a day or a week depending upon the purse and also market rates. Many a time they return home with only a handful of commodities due to high prices. Though they spend their entire wages they cannot get provisions in the required quantity. Generally they purchase one to two kilogram s of rice a day and spend one to two rupees on vegetables depending upon the size of the family and the money available with them. For the remaining expenses they have to get into debt. But their job is not over with the purchase of provisions. They have to grind the rice make it ready for cooking which again requires hard labour. They receive food grains of low quality which would be full of chaff. Except in a few cases where the women take it to the rice mill for grinding, in the majority of cases they would do it on their own by undertaking the additional work. In some cases they also exchange the paddy to purchase daily requirements like sweet oil, kerosene and vegetables. They are exploited even at this level. The Scheduled tribe agricultural labour are easily exploited. In this way the female agricultural labour are exploited at two levels despite working hard to eke out their livelihood. The landlords offer them cheap and new paddy which is always weightless. At the second stage they are at the mercy of the shopkeepers where barter system still prevails much to the disadvantage of the agricultural labour. 219

6.10 Respondents working MGNREGP The number of days female labour got jobs under the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Program (MGNREGP) is presented in table -6.10. In forward caste category working on an average 28 days, followed by scheduled tribe 25 days, scheduled caste 21 days. On an average total employment days under the scheme is 21 days, this is very low to the aim of the 100 days employment under this scheme. In spite of the government Programmes, women labour are not able to get employment for 200 days in a year. 6.11 Possession of Livestock Livestock is one of the important productive assets from which income is generated. Livestock includes animals such as cattle, buffalo s and bullocks, goats/sheep s, cows, poultry birds. The distribution of households have livestock among social groups is presented in the Table 6.11. It shows that 17.3 per cent of the respondents have cattle or milking animals remaining 83 per cent they don t have any cattle. Nearly 6.6 per cent respondents have bullocks/buffalo s, 3.3 per cent have goats and 5.3 per cent have poultry. Nearly 43 per cent forward caste women labour households and 33 per cent schedule tribe women households labour have cattle. 220

Table 6.10 AVERAGE WORKING DAYS UNDER MGNREGP Caste category Average days of employment Forward Caste 28 Backward Caste 24 Schedule caste 21 Scheduled tribe 25 Total 21 Source: Primary data 221

Table 6.11 DISTRIBUTION OF LIVESTOCK AMONG RESPONDENTS Sub-Caste Category Milk animals Cattle Buffalo s and Bullocks Goats Poultry Forward Caste 12 (42.9) 12 (42.9) - - Backward Caste 4 (3.0) - 7 (6.4) 8 (7.3) S.C 32 (22.1) 8 (5.8) 3 (2.15) 8 (5.8) S.T 8 (33.3) - - - Total 52 (17.3) 20 (6.6) 10 (3.3) 16 (5.3) Note: Figures in the parentheses represent percentages. Source: Computed from Primary data 222

6.12 Institutional participation of respondents Table - 6.12 reveals that 96 per cent of women labour households are counted as below poverty line BPL families and they are covered under public distribution system and getting rice, sugar and oil under subsidized prices. Nearly, 23 per cent of households do not have access to formal institutional credit and do not have bank account. While 71 per cent of the women labour are members of the self-help groups. 29 per cent of the women are not member of self-help group. Women labour are not participate in women organization or labour organization. 6.13 Average Monthly Household Expenditure The level of expenditure depends upon the level of income. Monthly average consumption expenditure of the households, in the total food items like cereals and cereal products pulses, edible oil, milk, curd, and milk products, eggs, fish and meat, vegetables and fruits, sugar, salt and other spices, refreshments, processed food and other food items is presented in Table -6.13. The study of consumption expenditure is an important as it is related to poverty and standard of living of the female labour households. Food being the foremost basic need gets the priority in the household expenditure of poor classes. Consumption pattern is the excellent indicator of economic well being of the households. The level of expenditure depends upon many factor like assets, level of education, occupation and demographic characteristics. The source of income for female labour household are varied. 223

Table 6.12 INSTITUTIONAL PARTICIPATION OF THE RESPONDENTS Institutional participation Member of Self Help Group Caste category of the respondent Forward Backward Scheduled Scheduled caste Caste Caste Tribe 24 70 106 12 (85.7) (64.2) (76.2) (50.0) Total 212 (70.6) Member of Women organization 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 12 (8.6) 4 (16.6) 16 (5.3) Member of labour organization 4 (14.2) 8 (7.3) 6 (4.3) 0 (0.0) 18 (6.0) Bank account 24 (85.7) 75 (68.8) 106 (76.3) 15 (62.5) 220 (73.3) Note: Figures in the parentheses represent percentages. Source: Computed from Primary data 224

Table-6.13 AVERAGE MONTHLY HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURE BY RESPONDENTS (Figures in Rupees) Sub-caste category Expenditure on total food items Expenditure on total non-food items Total Expenditure Forward caste 1511 (65) 1017 (40) 2528 Backward caste 1134 (57) 841 (43) 1975 Scheduled caste 1423 (59) 986 (41) 2410 Scheduled tribe 1172 (54) 962 (46) 2135 Total 1306 (58) 934 (42) 2241 Source: Primary data 225

The average monthly consumption expenditure in female labour household is Rs.2241 on an average the female labour households are spending 58 per cent of them total expenditure on food and 42 per cent on non-food. The monthly average expenditure is Rs. 1975 in backward caste communities are Rs. 2135 among schedule tribe communities. Forward caste female households are spending 60 per cent of them total expenditure on food and 40 per cent on non-food. Schedule tribe female households are spent 54 per cent of the total consumption expenditure on food. The general pattern of consumption is that, among the forward caste households the state of non-food expenditure in total expenditure is lower than the other backward caste and schedule tribe women households. The monthly consumption expenditure is found to be higher than the household income. In the forward caste category they spent for food items per month on an average Rs. 1511, followed by scheduled caste Rs. 1423, scheduled tribe Rs.1172, backward caste Rs. 1134. In the non-food items like pan and tobacco, liquor, clothing and footwear, soaps, detergents, toothpaste and other cosmetics, medical, education, electricity, fuel and lighting, telephone, consumer durables, miscellaneous consumer goods and services and rent, taxes and other items per month. In the forward caste respondents spent on average monthly non-food items Rs.1017, followed by scheduled caste Rs.986, scheduled tribe Rs.962 and backward caste Rs.841. In the total monthly family expenditure on an average forward caste spent Rs.2528, followed by scheduled caste, scheduled tribe and backward caste. 226

6.14 Source of Income There are different sources of income for rural labour households. The source of income of the sample households across social groups is presented in the Table - 6.14. The source of income is not the exclusive one for most of the household. The household found to be getting income from supplements sources or from the earning of the other member of the households. The children are also employed for cattle rearing and family work. The size of the family and number of working members of the household are deciding factor indicating the income of the households. In the sample households especially in the Scheduled caste and backward caste families, more number of children is found working in one or other activities. The majority of the respondents expressed that the children were not a liability for them as they earns their own livelihood. Particularly, the female children not only earn their bread but also do the domestic work and help their mothers. The table reveals that average monthly income from various sources like working on agriculture, livestock population and income from off farm employment. The forward caste category, income from getting income on an average of the 1034 from farm wage labour followed by scheduled caste getting Rs.1053, backward caste getting Rs.1029 and scheduled tribe getting Rs.1021 per month. Income from livestock on an average forward caste women households are getting Rs.1200 followed by scheduled caste Rs.1100, scheduled tribe Rs.800 and backward caste Rs.200 per month. The non-agricultural income of the household on an average is Rs.696, for backward caste followed by scheduled tribe Rs.212, scheduled caste Rs.175 227

Table 6.14 AVERAGE MONTHLY INCOME FROM THE AGRICULTURE AND ALLIED AND OFF-FARM ACTIVITIES OF THE RESPONDENTS (In Rupees) Caste category of the respondent Income for working on Agriculture (A) Livestock (B) Income from off farm employment (C) Total annual Income (A+B+C) Total annual Exp Def Forward Caste 1034 (44) 1200 (51) 106 (5) 2340 2528 188 Backward Caste 1029 (54) 200 (10) 696 (36) 1925 1975 50 SC 1053 (45) 1100 (47) 175 (8) 2328 2410 82 ST 1021 (50) 800 (39) 212 (11) 2033 2135 102 Total 1034 (48) 825 (38) 297 (14) 2156 2240 84 Source: Primary data 228

and Rs.106 forward caste per month. Further, the table reveals that major source of income for women labour households is wage labour in agriculture. Nearly 48 per cent of the income of the household is from agriculture. Next major source of income is from livestock rearing. Forward caste women households are getting 51 per cent of their income livestock rearing. Schedule caste women household are getting 47 per cent of income from livestock rearing. The schedule tribe households are getting 39 per cent of income from livestock. While forward caste and scheduled caste households depend on daring, schedule tribe households are depend on pig rearing. The backward caste households are getting 36 per cent of their income from off farm employment. The income for non-farm employment is very small for other households. The backward caste household found to be engaging in artisan activities. 6.15 Assets of the respondent The proportions of in which assets are distributed between productive and unproductive item are key for the level of income and consumption expenditure of the households. The households posses both physical and financial assets. In rural areas a good portion of the asset are held in the farm of physical assets and very little in the form of financial assets. The physical assets for female labour households are house, livestock implements and other household durable goods. Finance assets considered include savings and gold. 229

The data regarding asset distribution and value is presented in the table 6.15. The table reveals that forward caste labour have Rs. 60693 which is in physical assets and Rs. 14714 which is in liquid assts. Scheduled tribe women labour have Rs. 46700 which is in physical assets and Rs. 5150 which is in liquid assets. In Backward caste have Rs.45103 which is in physical assets and Rs. 4783 which is in liquid assets and in Scheduled caste category Rs. 39020 which is in physical assets and Rs. 6953 which is in liquid assets. 6.16 Indebtedness among respondents As per the National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO) study, there has been a significant drop in the proportion of indebted rural households over last few decades, but the gravity of such indebtedness among rural agricultural labour has significantly increased. As per the National Sample Survey Organization (N.S.S.O) study per households debt for agricultural labour at all India level has increased by 80 per cent. The raising indebtedness leads to declines living standards. The debt traps so vicious that 99 per cent of the women labour households are indebted in the study area. 230

Table -6.15 ASSETS DISTRIBUTION AMONG RESPONDENTS (IN AVERAGES) (In Rupees) Sub-caste category Physical Assets Liquid Assets Total Forward Castes 60693 14714 75407 Backward Castes 45103 4783 49886 Scheduled Castes 39020 6953 45973 Scheduled Tribes 46700 5150 51850 Total 43867 6745 50612 Source: Primary data 231

The field study reveals that the burden of debt taken from money lenders and micro-finance institutions at high interest rates. The data is presented in Table 6.16. Since household are not able to pay back the existing debt, most of them never get new loans. The average debt for household found to be higher. The debt Rs. 25564 among backward class household followed scheduled caste and scheduled tribe households. On an average each household indebted an annual of Rs. 9613 to banks and SHGs. Each household who have borrowed from non-institutional sources have an outstanding debt of Rs.10620. 6.17 Source of Credit The credit requirements of the female labour households in agriculture are met by obtaining loans from institutional and noninstitutional agencies. Institutional agencies particularly that banks and bank sponsored self help groups. The non-institutional agencies include money lenders, relatives and friends. The distribution of women labour by source wise credit is presented in the table. The table-6.17 shows that nearly 67 per cent of the households found to have access to bank credit. Only 17 per cent of the households access to bank credit are getting loan from self-help groups. Nearly 86 per cent of the forward caste, followed by scheduled caste 76.3 per cent, 68.8 per cent backward caste and 62.5 per cent scheduled tribe households getting loans from institutional agencies. Nearly 78 per cent of the respondents borrow loans from money lenders and 52.7 per cent respondents depend on relatives and friends for getting loan. 232

Table - 6.16 INDEBTEDNESS AMONG THE RESPONDENTS (IN AVERAGES) (In Rupees) Sources Caste category of the respondent Forward Caste Backward Caste SC ST Total Banks 2857 825 395 2916 1748 Self-Help Groups 8035 9128 12302 3958 8355 Institutional Outstanding (A) 8928 9954 12697 6875 9613 Money lenders 2750 8738 6790 12750 7757 Relatives and friends 1428 6871 2550 625 2868 Non-Institutional Outstanding (B) Total (A+B) 4178 15610 9341 13375 10626 13107 25564 22635 20250 20389 Source: Primary data 233

Table 6.17 SOURCE WISE DISTRIBUTION OF DEBT HOLDERS BY CASTE CATEGORY (Current year) Source of credit Banks 12 Caste category of the respondent General SC ST BC Total (42.9) 106 (76.3) 12 (50.0) 70 (64.2) 200 (66.7) SHG's 24 7 7 13 51 (85.7) (5.0) (29.2) (11.9) (17.0) Institutional (A) 24 106 15 75 220 (85.7) (76.3) (62.5) (68.8) (73.3) Money lenders 16 85 24 90 215 (57.1) (61.2) (82.6) (71.7) Relatives & friends 8 73 3 74 158 (28.6) (52.5) (12.5) (67.9) (52.7) Non-Institutional (B) 24 129 24 109 286 (85.7) (92.8) (95.3) Total (A+B) 28 136 24 109 297 (97.8) (99.0) Note: Figures in the parentheses represent percentages. Source: Computed from Primary data 234

Most of the respondents borrowed money from i.e. 95.3 per cent noninstitutional sources of credit requirements. 6.18 Access to Healthcare Health standards reflect the social, economic and political and moral well being of the people. Economic and social growth of the people directly depends on the health of its constraints. Access to quality health care is not only basic human right but also essential prerequisite for social and economic development. The access to healthcare facilities depends upon availability of services within a reasonable distance at an affordable cost and the economic conditions of the family. The income and economic status of the households is an important determinant of healthcare process of women. The table 6.18 reveals that majority of the female respondents (64 per cent) are using indigenous system of treatment, 30.7 per cent are going to Public Health Care centers for their treatment and only a few respondents (5.3 per cent) went to private doctors for their treatment. In the category wise, most of the forward and scheduled castes women labour depends on own treatment that is 86 per cent and 66 per cent. 83.3 per cent scheduled tribe population went to Public Health Centers for their treatment. Only a few per cent i.e. 7.3 per cent backward and scheduled casts 5.8 per cent women labour went to private doctors for their treatment. Though public health centers are opened created by the government in rural areas, they are not accessible to women because of constraints like lack of financial resources, technical staff and inadequate facilities in sub centers, Primary Health Centers and community Health Centers. 235

Table 6.18 HEALTHCARE PRACTICES FOR COMMON DISEASES Caste category of the respondent Health Practices Forward Caste BC SC ST Total Indigenous 24 73 91 4 192 (85.7) (67.0) (65.5) (16.7) (64.0) PHC 4 28 40 20 92 (14.3) (25.7) (28.8) (83.3) (30.7) Private Doctors 0 8 8 0 16 (0.0) (7.3) (5.8) (0.0) (5.3) Total 28 109 139 24 300 Note: Figures in the parentheses represent percentages. Source: Computed from Primary data 236

6.19 Time and energy distribution by female labour Table - 6.19 shows the average time spends by women labour respondents in their daily activities like working on agriculture various activities, domestic activities like washing clothes, cooking, housekeeping and gathering fire wood, animal activities like mulching animals, gathering grazing and washing animals, non-agricultural activities. The table shows that in the forward caste category of the respondents are on an average 6.7 hours works in farms per day followed by backward caste, scheduled caste and scheduled tribe respondents. In the domestic activities forward caste respondents spent 2.7 hours, followed by backward caste, scheduled caste and scheduled tribe respondents. In the forward caste category of the respondents 2.1 hour time spent for animals followed by backward, scheduled caste and scheduled tribe respondents. It is found that on an average female labour spends 6 hours a day in farms and 2 hours a day in domestic works, 2 hours a day on animal rearing and one hour a day nonagricultural work. Female labour on an average works 10 to 11 hours per day. Domestic work under taken by women including rearing by domestic animals take the equal time and energy at per with the wage labour activities. The time and energy that a women labour spends per day is higher than male in the household. 237

Activity Table-6.19 TIME AND ENERGY DISTRIBUTION Forward Caste (Average No. of Hours per day) Caste category of the respondent Backward SC Caste Agriculture 6.7 6.5 6.5 5.6 ST Domestic 2.7 2.0 1.9 1.3 Animals 2.1 0.11 2 2.4 Non- Agriculture 0.3 0.6 0.5 1.6 Source: Primary data 238

6.20 Wage discrimination between men and women Wage rates continue to be an important component that determines the conditions of women labour households in rural areas. Women agricultural workers, represent a big proportion of all workers in agriculture continue to receive lower wages than men. The women labour found to be getting 50 to 60 per cent of men wage. The discrimination in wage earning is not only dependent on gender, but also across agricultural season operations and region. The table 6.20 shows that wage differences between men and women various activities. For land preparation while average wage of the men is Rs.190 and in the women wage is Rs.100, in the sowing activity men wage is Rs.175 and women wage is Rs.110, in the weeding men wage is Rs. 155 and women wage rate is Rs.109, in the picking the average wage for men is Rs.157 and women Rs.125, in fertilizer application men wage is Rs. 195 and women wage is Rs.119 and in the harvesting time average wage rate of men is Rs.200 and women wage rate is Rs.122. In the non-agricultural sector men wage rate is Rs.120 and women wage rate is Rs.100. 239

Wage rate of different field operations Total average for Agriculture operations Table 6.20 WAGE DISCRIMINATION BETWEEN MEN AND WOMEN 1) Land preparation Men (Average wage) Women (Average Wage) (In Rupees) Percentage of Women 189 115 60 190 100 52 2) Sowing 175 110 62 3) Weeding 155 109 70 4) Fertilizer 195 119 61 5) Spraying 243 0 0 6) Picking 157 125 79 7) Harvesting 200 122 61 8) Others 195 122 62 Non- Agriculture Source: Primary data 120 100 83 240

6.21 Role of Women in Decision-making The decision-making process is an important segment of even household because it helps to plan for the betterment of the family. Both husband and wife are jointly responsible for making decisions on matter like family obligations, specific house charges and purchase of household articles. However, in rural areas women suggestions are not give due consideration in decision pertains to family matter of women are illiteracy is more among women the men and also due to several cultural taboos. During field visit, it was noticed that male member only sought their consent where as their suggestion and objections was not taken into account. The table 6.21 shows that decision-making in the women labour households in politics. The role of decision-making in the household is decided on the basis of sex and age. Above 80 per cent of the respondents reported that they do not have any role in decision making in the household and that it is their father, husband or other male members who take decisions. Only 14.6 per cent of the families, women have important role in decision-making together with men. In the category wise scheduled caste and scheduled tribe women mostly depend on their husbands i.e. 77 per cent and 71 per cent. There it is evident that women labour has to play second fiddle to men in decision making. This may be because of the fact that, women have less access to information due to their inferior education and relation isolation from public life. Then, there is hesitation to come out and interact. 241

Table - 6.21 DECISION - MAKING BY THE RESPONDENTS Decision making Forward Caste Caste category of the respondent BC SC ST Total Own 4 13 24 7 48 (14.3) (11.9) (17.3) (29.2) (16.0) Husband 16 64 107 17 204 (57.1) (58.7) (77.0) (70.8) (68.0) Other family members 8 32 8 0 48 (28.6) (29.4) (5.8) (0.0) (16.0) Total 28 109 139 24 300 Note: Figures in the parentheses represent percentages. Source: Computed from Primary data 242

To sum up, the socio characteristics of the sample respondents are examined with respect of their age, caste, religion, educational status and residential accommodation and economic characteristics like income, expenditure on food, and non-food items. Poverty and lack of skills had compelled the female and male agricultural labour to join the work force in their early age. This is clearly seen in the case of the Scheduled caste and Scheduled tribe respondents. As the social class and economic status go hand in hand, the labour from the backward castes, Scheduled castes and Scheduled tribes constitute the major fraction of the work force when compared to others. The majorities of the agricultural labour are illiterates and have not attended school even for a short period in their life. Majority of the respondents belonged to nuclear family. Nearly 49 per cent of the female labour possess Katcha house, out of these majority of the Scheduled Castes women labour live in Katcha houses. The Katcha houses without proper ventilation and adequate accommodation largely impede the social and psychological bearing of the female agricultural labour whose reproductive and domestic functions are badly affected. Nearly 84 per cent of Scheduled Caste and 75 per cent of Backward Caste women have been do not have access to drinking water nearby their house. Nearly 78 per cent women labour depends on other houses having drinking water facility or public tap or public hand pumps which are one Km away from the house. Nearly 73 per cent of respondents do not have any drainage facility; this clearly indicates the poor living condition of the respondents. Lack of sanitation facilities is the major problem of the women 243

labour. In the absence of taps they depend on wells for water, even wells are not situated near and they go for long distance to draw water from the well and carry it home. Live stock is additional income of the female agricultural labour households; most of the 43 per cent Backward and 33.3 Scheduled tribes female labour depend on the livestock to other income. The primary data reveals that on an average female labour are working only 104 days in agriculture this is very low to national average figures. In the off-season they choose other work in the non-agricultural sector. In the sample area MGNREGP provide employment to female labour. On an average 21 days female labour are working under the MGNREGP and majority of the Scheduled Castes and Backward Castes female labour are working and benefited under the scheme. But above half of the respondents are not working under the scheme, because of lack of knowledge about the government schemes, illiteracy and socially backwardness. The average monthly consumption expenditure in female labour household is Rs. 2241. On an average the female labour households are spending 58 per cent of them total expenditure on food and 42 per cent on non-food. The monthly consumption expenditure is found to be higher than the household income. Nearly 48 per cent of the income of the household is from agriculture. The debt traps so vicious that 99 per cent of the women labour households are indebted in the study area. Most of the respondents borrowed money from i.e. 95.3 per cent non-institutional sources of credit requirements. The women labour found to be getting 50 to 60 per cent of men wage. Above 80 per cent of the respondents reported that they do not 244

have any role in decision-making in the household and that it is their father, husband or other male members who take decisions. The female agricultural labour after collecting the wages, they go for shopping to consume daily needs which include rice, oil and vegetables. Items of work, like purchase of food, groceries, and purchase of other home needs keep the women busy round the clock. At times they also exchange the paddy to purchase daily requirements. Though all the members in the family contributed their mite to sustain the family, unequal intake of food largely affects women very badly. Despite spending the major part of their income on food, women had to eat only the left-over food after their men ate the lion s share. The economic position of the agricultural labour is further deteriorated with man s addiction to alcohol and smoking. The majority of the male members in the family spent a considerable amount of their income on liquor and smoking which in turn, affected their women.it is obvious that socio-economic status of the agricultural labour declined, though they worked hard. The social conditions in which they live continue to be traditional, exploitative and anti-women in character and impede the development of the agricultural labour in general and of the female agricultural labour in particular. Majority of the respondents depend on indigenous treatment for common diseases, they never attend any health care centre for their treatment. In the study area it shows that female infant mortality and maternal mortality is high. So, it is clear that women empowered economically through agricultural transformation and increased incomes have access to the health facilities in private sector and where 245

people have more access to education and medical facilities, i.e., infant mortality rate is decreasing with the increasing levels of income and agricultural growth. The study proves that the socio-economic conditions of the rural women labour in agriculture in the study area are very poor and view of looking at the women in rural community has not been changed due to male dominance. Maximum number of female agricultural labour household is living below the poverty line and they are not getting proper remuneration for their work. Very few women labour are receiving the benefits of the government schemes. So, it is necessary to create awareness and motivate women labour with their inherent intellectual capacities, and also it is necessary to create self confidence, educational and vocational qualification in the rural women below the poverty line. The planning process for the last 60 years failed to address the removal of poverty among women agricultural labor. Standard of women labour are found to be poor as a consequence of prevalence of low income and consumption levels. Low levels of living of the women labour are accompanied by low level of education, poor health, unhygienic living conditions and low income. * * * 246