Particulars LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF APPENDIX LIST OF ANNEXURE ABBREVIATIONS CONTENTS Page No. CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1-17 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 Trends in Poverty at National and State Levels Conceptualisation of Poverty Poverty line- Evolution of the Concept Poverty: Plausible Explanations Poverty and Development Poverty Alleviation Programmes Objectives of Study Chapter Scheme CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 18-51 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 Defining and Measuring Poverty Extent of Shift and Factors Affecting Poverty District Level Studies Identification of Poor Inconsistency Between Official Poverty Estimates and Other Estimates Performance of Poverty Alleviation Programmes Studies on Punjab Economy CHAPTER 3 DATABASE AND RESEARCH DESIGN 52-81 3.1 Punjab- A Profile at State Level and District Level 3.1.1 Punjab- A Profile 3.1.2 Punjab- A Profile of its Cultural Regions 3.1.3 Profiles of Sampled Districts of Doaba Region 3.1.3.1 Hoshiarpur
3.2 3.3 3.1.3.2 Jalandhar 3.1.3.3 Kapurthala 3.1.3.4 Nawanshahr Research Design 3.2.1 Selection of Block 3.2.2 Selection of Villages and Households from Rural Areas 3.2.3 Selection of Wards and Households in Urban Areas 3.2.4 Schedule 3.2.5 Selection of Sample for Evaluation of Poverty Alleviation Programs 3.2.6 Secondary Data Methodology 3.3.1 Determination of Conventional Poverty Line 3.3.1.1 Modified Poverty Line 3.3.2 Indicators of Poverty 3.3.3 Poverty Measures 3.3.3.1 Headcount Ratio (Hp) 3.3.3.2 Poverty Gap Index (PGI) 3.3.3.3 Income Gap Ratio / Poverty Gap Ratio (Ip) 3.3.3.4 Sen Index (Sp) 3.3.3.5 Squared Poverty Gap (Ip 2 ) 3.3.3.6 Poverty Index Thon (Thp) 3.3.4 Statistical Tools 3.3.4.1 Hypothesis Testing Using Z-Statistics 3.3.4.2 Gini Coefficient (Gp) and Lorenz Curve 3.3.4.3 Regression Analysis 3.3.4.4 Principal Component Analysis
CHAPTER 4 4.1 4.2 4.3 SOCIO ECONOMIC PROFILE OF SAMPLED HOUSEHOLDS Demographic Characteristics 4.1.1 Demographic Differences on the Basis of Habitation and Social Groups 4.1.2 Household Size 4.1.3 Demographic Differences between Poor and Nonpoor 4.1.4 Age Composition 4.1.5 Dependency Ratio 4.1.6 Sex Ratio 4.1.7 Poor and Non-poor Households: A Comparison Income Profile 4.2.1 Per Capita Income Distribution by Habitation 4.2.2 Distribution of Per Capita Income by Social Groups 4.2.2.1 Social Group: SC 4.2.2.2 Social Group: Non-SC 4.2.3 Inequality in Income Distribution 4.2.3.1 Deciles Distributive Shares and Lorenz Curves 4.2.3.2 Kuznets Ratio 4.2.4 Estimates of Income Distribution 4.2.5 Index of Income Poverty 4.2.6 Source of Income Expenditure Profile 4.3.1 Level of Expenditure 4.3.2 Expenditure Pattern 4.3.2.1 Non-durable consumer expenditure 4.3.2.2 Expenditure on Durable Items 84-159 4.4 Occupation Profile
4.5 4.6 4.4.1 Distribution of Households According to Economic Activity 4.4.1.1 Sectoral Distribution of Households on the Basis of Habitation 4.4.1.2 Sectoral Distribution on the Basis of Social Groups 4.4.1.3 Sectoral Distribution of Households on the Basis of Economic Groups: Poor and Nonpoor 4.4.1.4 Distribution of Working Persons by Broad Industry Division 4.4.3 Work Participation Rate 4.4.3.1 Work Profile and Per Capita Income 4.4.3.2 Age Specific Work Force Participation Rate (ASWPR) 4.4.4 Employment and Education Level Education Profile 4.5.1 Literacy Ratio 4.5.2 Literacy by Habitation 4.5.3 Rural-Urban (Population Group-wise) Distribution 4.5.4 Literacy by Gender Difference 4.5.5 Social Group-wise Distribution 4.5.6 Poor and Non-Poor (Population Group-wise) Distribution 4.5.7 Educational Inequality 4.5.8 Average Years of Schooling 4.5.9 Education and Development Housing Profile 4.6.1 Type of Houses 4.6.2 Number of Dwelling Rooms 4.6.3 Availability of Separate Kitchen
4.6.4 Availability of Electricity and Toilet 4.6.5 Households by Tenure Status 4.6.6 Type of Fuel used for Cooking 4.6.7 Source of Drinking Water 4.6.8 Housing Characteristics CHAPTER 5 DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS 160-190 5.1 Measurement of Poverty 5.1.1 Poverty Estimation at District Level with Various Poverty Measures 5.1.1.1 Social Group and Poverty Estimation 5.1.1.2 Poverty Estimation According to Different Occupation Groups 5.1.2 Poverty Estimation on the Basis of Monthly Per Capita Income (MPCI) 5.1.2.1 Secondary Poverty Line and Poverty Estimation 5.1.3 Poverty Estimation on the Basis of Monthly Per Capita Expenditure 5.1.3.1 Estimation of Appropriate Poverty Line on the Basis of Food and Non-Food Expenditure of Poor 5.1.3.2 Estimating Food and Non- Food Expenditure 5.2 of Poor on the basis of Appropriate Poverty Line Determinants of Poverty: The Empirical Results 5.3 5.2.1 A Simple Regression Analysis 5.2.2 A Step -wise Regression Analysis Extent of Deprivation and Poverty in Punjab 5.3.1 District-Wise Deprivation Index
CHAPTER 6 6.1 6.2 6.3 CHAPTER 7 5.3.2 Deprivation Index According to Different Social Groups 5.3.3 Quintile Distribution of Deprivation Index EFFECTIVENESS OF POVERTY ALLEVIATION 191-221 PROGRAMMES Various Poverty Alleviation Programmes Working in India 6.1.1 Rural Poverty Alleviation Programmes 6.1.2 Urban Employment Guarantee Programmes 6.1.3 Micro Credit and Poverty Alleviation Poverty Alleviation Programmes in Punjab 6.2.1 Poverty Alleviation Programmes in Operation in Punjab 6.2.1.1 Swarnjayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojana (SGSY) 6.2.1.2 National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGS) 6.2.1.3 Indira Awas Yojana (IAY) 6.2.1.4 Atta Dal Scheme 6.2.2 Effectiveness of Poverty Alleviation Programmes in Punjab Empirical Analysis of Poverty Alleviation Programs 6.3.1 Socio -Economic Condition of the Beneficiaries 6.3.2 Impact of Implementation of Poverty Alleviation Programmes on Sampled Households SUMMARY, POLICY IMPLICATIONS AND 222-241 SUGGESTIONS BIBLIOGRAPHY 242-258 APPENDICES I XXI ANNEXTURE XXII-XXX
LIST OF TABLES Table No. Particulars Page No. 1.1 Percentage of People below Poverty Line in Punjab and All India: 1973-74 to 2004-05-A Comparison 1.2 State-wise Poverty Ratio: 1973-74 to 1999-2000-A Comparison 5 1.3 State-wise Number of Poor, Poverty Line and Poverty Ratio (1999-2000) 1.4 Indicators of Millennium Development Goals 14 2.1 Empirical Studies at a Glance: Defining and Measuring Poverty 22 2.2 Empirical Studies at a Glance: Extent of Shift and Factors Affecting Poverty 2.3 Empirical Studies at a Glance: District Level Studies 30-31 2.4 Empirical Studies at a Glance: Identification of Poor 35 2.5 Empirical Studies at a Glance: Inconsistency Between Official Poverty Estimates and other Estimates 2.6 Empirical Studies at a Glance: An Evaluation of the Performance of Poverty Alleviation Programmes 3 7 27 39 46-47 2.7 Empirical Studies at a Glance: Studies on Punjab Economy 50 3.1 Statistical Profile of Punjab and India (2001) 53 3.2 District-wise Statistical Profile of Punjab 2001 55 3.3 Statistical Profile of Cultural Regions of Punjab (2001) 56 3.4 Statistical Profile of Sampled Districts in Doaba Region of Punjab (2001) 3.5 List of Villages Selected for Study 64 3.6 List of Selected Wards 64 3.7 Secondary Data Sources for the Study 66 3.8 Variables Used for Regression Analysis 80 3.9 Variables Used to Construct Deprivation Index 81 4.1.1 District- wise Demographic Characteristics on the Basis of Habitation 61 85
Table No. Particulars Page No. 4.1.2 Percentage Distribution of Poor and Non-poor by Household 86 Size 4.1.3 Demographic Differences between Poor and Non- poor 88 4.1.4 Age Composition of Poor and Non-poor Households 89 4.1.5 Comparison of Poor and Non-poor Sampled Households: Test of 92 Mean 4.2.1 Percentage Distribution of Population and Households 94 According to Average Monthly Per Capita Income (AMPCI) 4.2.2 Average Monthly Per Capita Income (AMPCI) and Percentage 97 Distribution of Scheduled Caste (SC) Population 4.2.3 Average Monthly Per Capita Income (AMPCI) and Percentage 98 Distribution of Non -Scheduled Caste (Non-SC) 4.2.4 Cumulative Percentage Share of Income 99 4.2.5 Estimates of Kuznets Ratio 102 4.2.6 Estimates of Income (AMPCI) Distribution 103 4.2.7 Index of Income Poverty 104 4.2.8 Percentage Distribution of Households Earning According to 105 Source of Income 4.2.9 Percentage of Persons Earning Income from Different Sources 106 by MPCI Class 4.3.1 Average Monthly Per Capita Expenditure by Household Type 108 (Rs.) 4.3.2 Percentage Share of Food and Non-food Items in Average 109 Monthly Per Capita Expenditure 4.3.3 Consumption Expenditure on Food and Non-food Items (Rural 113 Areas) 4.3.4 Consumption Expenditure on Food and Non-food Items (Urban 113 Areas) 4.3.5 Proportion of Households Possessing Different Durable Items 114
Table No. Particulars Page No. 4.4.1 Percentage Distribution of Household s Earnings from Various 116 Sources 4.4.2 Percentage Distribution of Households by Household Type and 118 Social Group 4.4.3 Percentage Distribution of Households by Household Type and 119 Economic Groups 4.4.4 Percentage Distribution of Working Persons by Broad Industry 121 Division 4.4.5 Work Participation Rate at the Age of 15 years (Percentage) 122 4.4.6 Work Profile and Per Capita Income 123 4.4.7 Percentage Distribution of Working Persons by Age Group 124 4.4.8 Education level of Employed at the Age of 15 years (Per cent) 125 4.5.1 Percentage Distribution of Population by Gender, Education and 128 Habitation 4.5.2 Distribution of Literacy According to Gender and Habitation 129 Groups (Per cent) 4.5.3 Significance of Difference in Education Level Attained 132 According to Habitation, Gender and Various Social Groups. 4.5.4 Distribution of Literacy Ratio by Sex, Social Group and 133 Habitation 4.5.5 Education Characteristics of Poor and Non -Poor 134 4.5.6 Gini Co-efficient of Family Education by Social Group 136 4.5.7 Rural - Urban Disparity of Education: Cumulative Percentage 136 Share of Family Education by Fractile Group 4.5.8 Average Year of Schooling 137 4.5.9 Average Years of Schooling for SC Households 138 4.5.10 Average Year of Schooling for Non- SC Social Group 139 4.5.11 Step-wise Regression Results for the Sampled Districts 141 4.5.12 Step-wise Regression Results for the Doaba Region of Punjab 143
Table No. Particulars Page No. 4.6.1 Distribution of Household by Condition of Houses 145 4.6.2 Distribution of Households by Number of Dwelling Rooms 147 4.6.3 Distribution of Households by Availability of Separate Kitchen 148 4.6.4 Distribution of Households by Availability of Electricity and 150 Toilet 4.6.5 Distribution of Households by Tenure Status 151 4.6.6 Distribution of Households by Type of Fuel Used for Cooking 152 4.6.7 Distribution of Households by Source of Drinking Water 154 4.6.8 (U) Housing Characteristics and Comparison of Poor and Non- Poor 156 (Urban) 4.6.8 (R) Housing Characteristics and Comparison of Poor and Non- poor 157 (Rural) 5.1.1 Poverty Estimation for Different Districts of Doaba Region in 161 Punjab 5.1.2 Incidence and Severity of Poverty among Different Social 163 Groups 5.1.3 Poverty Estimation by Occupation Groups in Doaba Region in 164 Punjab 5.1.4 Incidence, Depth and Severity of Poverty 167 5.1.5 Percentage Distribution of Population Living Below Poverty 167 Line ($1per day) According to Social Groups 5.1.6(a) Average and Percentage Share of MPCE by the Poor on Food 169 and Non-Food Items 5.1.6(b) Average and Percentage Share of MPCE by Food and Non-food 170 Items (Appropriate Poverty Line Poor) 5.1.7 Poverty Ratio Using Appropriate Poverty line 171 5.2.1 Regression Estimates of Determinants of Poverty (Rural) 175 5.2.2 Regression Estimates of Determinants of Poverty (Urban) 176
Table No. Particulars Page No. 5.2.3 Regression Estimates of Determinants of Poverty (All Sampled 177 Districts) 5.2.4 Determinants of Poverty in Hoshiarpur District: An Application 179 of Step-wise Regression 5.2.5 Determinants of Poverty in Jalandhar District : An Application 180 of Step-wise Regression 5.2.6 Determinants of Poverty in Kapurthala District: An Application 181 of Step-wise Regression 5.2.7 Determinants of Poverty in Nawanshahr District: An Application 182 of Step-wise Regression 5.2.8 Determinants of Poverty in Rural Punjab: An Application of 182 Step-wise Regression 5.2.9 Determinants of Poverty in Urban Punjab: An Application of 183 Step-wise Regression 5.2.10 Determinants of Poverty in All Sampled Districts of Punjab: An 184 Application of Step-wise Regression 5.3.1 Deprivation Index for All Sampled Districts of Punjab 187 5.3.2 Deprivation Index According to Different Social Groups 187 5.3.3 Quintile Distribution of Deprivation Index of Punjab 188 6.1.1 Progress of SHG- Bank Linkage 196 6.2.1 Funds Available under SGSY Program for Kapurthala District 198 (Rs.in Lac) 6.2.2 Expenditure under SGSY Program for Kapurthala District (Rs. 198 in Lac) 6.2.3 Budget of Financial Assistance under SGSY for Kapurthala 199 District (Rs. in Lac) 6.2.4 Block-wise Number of Beneficiaries under Self-help Groups 200 6.2.5 Year- wise Details of Employment Generated under NREGA in Kapurthala District 201
Table No. Particulars Page No. 6.2.6 Block-wise Employment Generated up to the Year 2009-10 202 6.2.7 Budget of Financial Assistance under IAY for Kapurthala 204 District (Rs. in Lac) 6.2.8 Block-wise details of Funds Released for Kapurthala District 205 under Indira Awas Yojana (Rs. in Lac) 6.2.9 District- wise number of BPL Families introduced by Planning 207 Commission and the BPL Families Identified under Atta Dal Scheme by Punjab Government 6.2.10 Subsidy Provided to BPL Families in Atta Dal Scheme 208 6.2.11 Evaluation of Poverty Alleviation Programmes in Punjab 209-210 6.3.1 Social Characteristics of Households Possessing BPL Card 212 6.3.2 Economic Characteristics of Household Possessing a BPL Card 213 6.3.3 Distribution of Sampled Households before Implementation of 215 Poverty Alleviation Programmes 6.3.4 Distribution of Households after Implementation of Poverty 216 Alleviation Programmes 6.3.5 Percentage of Poor Before and After Implementation of Poverty 216 Alleviation Programme 6.3.6 Opinion of Respondents on Implementation of Poverty 217 Alleviation Programmes 6.3.7 Distribution of Households regarding their Satisfaction Level for Various Poverty Alleviation Programs 218