The theory of taxation (Stiglitz ch. 17, 18, 19; Gruber ch.19, 20; Rosen ch.13,14,15) Tax incidence Taxation and economic efficiency Optimal taxation
Introduction Public intervention is sometime needed to correct market failures and redistribute income. However public intervention is costly and it is largely financed through compulsory taxation. There are two main forms of taxation: Direct taxes on individuals and firms (example: income tax, payroll tax, tax on firms, tax on property, tax on capital gains) Indirect taxes on goods and services (example: value added tax, customs duties on imports, excise tax)
Tax structure in OECD countries All OECD countries tend to levy the biggest part of their revenue from taxes. In Nordic countries taxes on income-related levies hold more than half of tax revenues In Eastern European countries taxes on consumption (VAT) are predominant Taxes on property are relatively high in France, the USA, Canada, Spain and Switzerland.
Total tax revenue by Member States and EFTA countries, 2014 and 2015, % of GDP
Structure of tax revenues in OECD countries, 2013 Source: OECD Revenue Statistics 2015 120,0 100,0 80,0 60,0 40,0 20,0 0,0 Income & profits Social security Payroll Property Goods and services Others EU Custom Duties
Effects of taxation With the exception of lump sum taxes (2 fundamental theorem of welfare economics), all other taxes alter the relative prices of goods, services and production factors and Change the economic behaviour of individuals and firms, affecting labour supply, consumption, savings and investment decisions and have impacts on financial and organisation structures.
Who really bears the burden of a tax?- Tax incidence/1 (Stiglitz ch.18, Gruber ch.19) The tax burden is the difference between the individual s available resources before and after the tax, taking full account of changes in relative prices (and wages). The incidence of a tax assess who actually pays the tax: i.e. who (consumer or producer) has his/her income lowered by the tax. Those who bear the burden of a tax may differ from those on whom a tax is imposed or levied (statutory incidence): statutory incidence: The burden of a tax borne by the party that sends the check to the government. economic incidence: The burden of taxation measured by the change in the resources available to any economic agent as a result of taxation.
Consumer and producer tax burden
Tax incidence It makes no difference whether a commodity tax is levied on consumers or on producers or whether a payroll tax is paid half by the employers and half by workers or entirely paid by one or the other. What is relevant to assess who really pays the tax is the demand and supply elasticities and whether the market is competitive or not The same reasoning applies to subsidies.
The Side of the Market on Which the Tax Is Imposed Is Irrelevant to the Distribution of the Tax Burdens: commodity tax on producers (supply side) The tax on producers increases marginal production costs and a higher price for each unit of product: the supply curve shifts upward by the amount Q 1 of the tax. The increase in prices lowers the quantity consumed and at the end P the tax incidence is shared by consumers and producers. Supply curve after tax Post tax price paid by consumers Pre tax price B tax A Supply curve before tax Post tax price received by firms Demand curve Q 2 Q 1 Q
The Side of the Market on Which the Tax Is Imposed Is Irrelevant to the Distribution of the Tax Burdens: commodity tax on consumers (demand side) The tax on the consumers, increases the price of the good and shifts the demand curve downward by the amount of the tax. This lowers the quantity consumed and increases the price paid by consumers (the same effect as a tax levied on producers), but reduces the price received by producers. Again the burder is shared by consumers and producers. P Demand curve before tax Price paid by consumers after tax (new price + tax) Pre-tax price tax A Supply curve Post tax price (price received by firms) B Q 2 Q 1 Demand curve after Tax Q
Prices, elasticities and tax incidence Taxes and subsidies induce changes in relative prices and it is this market response that determines who really pays the tax: Gross price= the price in the market and after tax price = gross price - amount of the tax (when tax levied on producers) or + amount of the tax (when tax levied on consumers) Price changes depend on the shape of the supply and demand curves, which are measured by their elasticities The elasticity of demand gives the percentage change in the quantity of good consumed due to a percentage change in its price. The elasticity of supply gives the change in the amount produced, given a percentage change in its price.
Tax incidence and tax revenues in competitive markets/1 Inelastic factors bear taxes elastic factors avoid taxes More generally the final incidence of a tax depends on the relative elasticities of demand and supply. The elasticities of demand and supply also affect the amount of tax revenue raised: tax revenues are greater the lower are the elasticities. Vice versa, the greater are the elasticities, the lower the tax revenue, because of the greater reduction in the quantity traded.
Tax incidence in competitive markets/2 The more elastic is the demand curve and the less elastic the supply curve, the more the tax will be borne by producers and vice versa. There is full shifting when one part bears all the burden of the tax The same reasoning applies to taxes on factors of productions.
Relative elasticity of supply and demand: full shifting of commodity tax on consumers With perfectly elastic supply the price rises by the full amount of the tax, the entire burden of the tax is on consumers P P 1 Demand Curve tax Supply curve after tax P 1 P 0 With perfectly inelastic demand, the price rises by the full amount of the commodity tax and the entire burden is on consumers P Demand Curve tax Supply curve after tax Supply curve before tax P 0 Supply curve before tax Q 1 Q 0 Q Q 0 =Q 1 Q
Relative elasticity of supply and demand: full shifting of commodity tax on producers Tax With perfectly inelastic supply curve, the price does not rise at all and the full burden of the tax is on producers P With perfectly elastic demand, the price does not rise at all and the entire burden of the tax is on producers P Demand Curve Perfectly Inelastic Supply curve P 0 =P 1 P 0 = P 1 tax Supply curve after tax tax Supply before tax Perfectly Elastic Demand Curve Q 0 =Q 1 Q Q 1 Q 0 Q
Tax incidence: extensions Tax incidence in factor markers Tax incidence in imperfectly competitive markets Tax incidence in partial and in general equilibrium Tax incidence in short and long run
Tax Incidence in factor markets Gruber J. (2007), Public Finance and public Policy, Worth Publishers 18 of 36
Tax incidence in factor markets: tax on labour (payroll tax) levied on firms with different supply elasticities A tax on labour levied on firms shifts labour demand downward, reducing wages and employment. The incidence of the tax depends on the elasticity of demand and supply. If labour supply is relatively inelastic, most of the burden of the tax will fall on workers. If labour supply is perfectly elastic the tax burden is completely shifted on labour demand (employers) Δ W W Tax Labour supply curve Labour demand curve before tax Labour demand after tax W tax W 0 =W 1 Labour demand curve before tax L 1 L 0 L L 1 L 0 Elastic labour supply Labour demand after tax L
19. 2 Tax Incidence in Imperfectly Competitive Market Although the monopolist has market power, a tax on either side of the market results in the same sharing of the tax burden. Monopolists cannot use their market power to avoid the rules of tax incidence. 20 of 36 Gruber J. (2007), Public Finance and public Policy, Worth Publishers
Tax incidence in general equilibrium The general equilibrium incidence may differ from the partial equilibrium: partial equilibrium tax incidence: considers the impact of a tax on a market in isolation. general equilibrium tax incidence: considers the effects on related markets of a tax imposed on one market.
Tax incidence in general equilibrium an example: General equilibrium effects of a tax on wine production Wine market The tax increases prices and lowers wine consumption and production P Labour market:lower wine production reduces labour demand, since labour supply is perfectly elastic no effect on wages W Vineyards: lower production reduces demand for vineyards. Land supply is unelastic, no effects on quantity, but reduction in land prices. Land owners bear the producers burden of the tax P S V S 1 D 0 S 0 D 1 tax D S L D 1 D 0 Q L Q
19. 3 General Equilibrium Tax Incidence Effects of a Restaurant Tax: A General Equilibrium Example Gruber J. (2007), Public Finance and public Policy, Worth Publishers
19. 3 General Equilibrium Tax Incidence Effects of a Restaurant Tax: A General Equilibrium Example General Equilibrium Tax Incidence 24 of 36 Gruber J. (2007), Public Finance and public Policy, Worth Publishers
Effects of the time period on tax incidence Short-run and long-run elasticities usually differ: in the long run supply and demand elasticities are usually higher than in the short run. Factors that are inelastically demanded or supplied in both the short and the long run bear taxes also in the long run Open economies: demand and supply curves are usually more elastic than in closed economies Scope of the tax: taxes that are broader based are harder too avoid than taxes that are narrower, e.g. the demand and supply will be less elastic
Tax incidence and spillover effects on other markets Consider a tax on restaurant meals in Castellanza. A higher aftertax price has three effects on other goods as well: 1. Consumers have lower incomes and may therefore purchase fewer units of all goods (the income effect). 2. Consumers may increase their consumption of goods and services (such as movies) that are substitutes for restaurant meals because they are now relatively cheaper than the taxed meals (the substitution effect). 3. Consumers may reduce their consumption of goods or services (such as valet parking services) that are complements to restaurant meals because they are consuming fewer restaurant meals (the complementary effect).
Summary: Incidence of taxation Incidence is about prices not quantities Statutory burdens are not real burdens Side of the market is irrelevant Parties with inelastic supply or demand of market bear taxes; parties with elastic supply or demand avoid taxes. Monopolists cannot exploit their market power to avoid tax incidence. A tax on either side of the market results in the same sharing of the tax burden Short-run and long-run elasticities may differ. Factors that are always inelastically demanded or produced in both short and long run bear taxes in the long run Scope of tax is important (i.e. taxing restaurants in Castellanza vs. taxing restaurants in Lombardy)