FIGURE 1.1 Labor-Force Participation Rate for Men and Women, Age 25 to 54, and Mothers, 1948 to 25 Percentage 1 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1948 1955 1965 1975 Year 1985 1995 25 Men 25 to 54 Women 25 to 54 Women with children under 18 Source: Authors compilation based on data from Mosisa and Hipple (26, table 1).
FIGURE 1.2 Women s Median Annual Earnings as a Percentage of Men s (Full-Time and Full-Year), 1951 to 27 Percentage 1 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 64 1951 61 196 59 197 6 198 Year 72 199 73 2 78 27 Source: Authors compilation based on National Committee on Pay Equity (29).
FIGURE 1.3 Marriage and Divorce Rates per Thousand Population, 193 to 27 Rate (Per Thousand) 14 12 1 8 6 4 2 Marriage rate Divorce rate 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 2 27 Year Source: Authors compilation based on U.S. Census Bureau (N.d.; 195, table 64; 197, table 75; 2, table 144, and 21, table 126). Note: Rates for men and women age fifteen and older show similar trends, but are only available through 1993. FIGURE 1.4 Nonmarital Birth Rate and Nonmarital Birth Ratio, 194 to 26 Rate (Per Thousand) 6 5 4 3 2 1 Birth rate per 1, unmarried females age 15 to 44 Nonmarital birth ratio (percentage of all births that were nonmarital) 194 195 196 197 198 199 2 26 Year Source: Authors compilation based on Ventura and Bachrach (2) (data for 194 to 199) and Hamilton, Martin, and Ventura (27) (data for 2 to 26).
FIGURE 1.5 Children Under Eighteen Years Living with One Parent, 196 to 29 Percentage 3 25 2 15 1 9 12 2 25 27 26 5 196 197 198 199 2 29 Year Living with father only Living with mother only, other Living with mother only, never married Living with mother only, divorced Source: Authors figure based on U.S. Census Bureau (21a).
FIGURE 1.6 Real Median Earnings of Male Workers (A) and Real Median Earnings of Female Workers (B), 1967 to 28 (28 Dollars) A 28 Dollars 45, 4, All High school diploma 35, 3, 9 to 11 years 25, 2, 15, to 8 years 1, 5, 1967 1972 1977 1982 1987 1992 1997 22 27 Year B 3, 25, 28 Dollars 2, 15, 1, All High school diploma 9 to 11 years to 8 years 5, 1967 1972 1977 1982 1987 1992 1997 22 27 Year Source: Authors calculations based on U.S. Census Bureau (21b).
FIGURE 1.7 13 12 Share of Aggregate Income of High- and Low-Income Families Compared to 1947 a Top 5 percent Share 11 1 9 Highest 2 percent 8 Lowest 2 percent 7 1947 1952 1957 1962 1967 1972 1977 1982 1987 1992 1997 22 27 Year Source: Authors calculations based on U.S. Census Bureau (21b). a The income share of each group is set to 1 in 1947. The value for year T is the ratio of the income share in T to the share in 1947, multiplied by 1.
FIGURE 1.8 Percentage of Private Wage and Salary Workers in Unions, 1929 to 26 Percentage of Workers in Unions 4 35 3 25 2 15 1 5 1929 1936 1943 195 1957 1964 1971 1978 1985 1992 1999 26 Year Source: Authors compilation based on Hirsch (28, data appendix).
FIGURE 1.9 U.S. Poverty Rate by Age, 1959 to 28 Percentage Poor 4 35 35.2 3 27.3 65 and over 25 Under 18 2 19. 15 17. 11.7 1 5 18 to 64 9.7 1959 1963 1967 1971 1975 1979 1983 1987 1991 1995 1999 23 27 Year Source: Authors calculations based on U.S. Census Bureau (29b, table B-2.)
FIGURE 2.1 Percentage of Americans Who Are Insecure, 1985 to 27 (With 28 to 29 Projections) a Percentage of Population 22 2 18 16 14 12.2 12 1 8 6 4 13.7 2 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 21 23 25 27 29 Year Source: Author s compilation based on Hacker et al. (21). a The insecure are those whose available household income declines by at least 25 percent from one year to the next (after adjusting for inflation), as a result of a decline in household income or an increase in out-of-pocket medical spending, and who lack an adequate financial safety net. Thus an individual is considered insecure if the sum of the increase in medical expenditures and lost annual income totals at least 25 percent of his or her previous year s available income. Household income includes all private and government sources of income, including the estimated income value of defined-contribution retirement accounts, such as 41(k)s, for households with heads age sixty or older. Household income is adjusted to reflect the economies of scale of pooling household resources and expenses. Household income is also reduced by the amount needed to pay off liquid financial debts when net financial wealth is negative. Individuals with adequate holdings of liquid financial wealth are not treated as insecure even when they experience 25 percent or higher income losses. We define adequate as enough liquid financial wealth to compensate for the lost income until typical recovery to pre-drop income or for six years, whatever comes first. Those entering retirement are also excluded from the count of the insecure, even if available household income declines by 25 percent or more concurrent with retirement; once retired, however, they are counted as insecure when they experience such declines. 17. 2.4 (projected)
FIGURE 2.2 $1,2, Change in Average Household After-Tax Annual Income, Including Public and Private Benefits Between 1979 and 26 a 256% rise Average Annual Income $1,, $8, $6, $4, $2, $ 11% rise Poorest Fifth 1979 26 18% rise 21% rise 32% rise Second Fifth Middle Fourth Fifth Fifth Income Group 55% rise 8th to 99th Percentiles Top 1 Percent Source: Author s calculations based on data in Congressional Budget Office (29 table at www.cbo.gov/publications/collections/tax/29/average_after-tax_income.xls; accessed on January 1, 21). a Income includes wages, salaries, self-employment income, rents, taxable and nontaxable interest, dividends, realized capital gains, cash transfer payments, and cash retirement benefits, as well as all in-kind benefits, such as Medicare, Medicaid, employer-paid health insurance premiums, food stamps, school lunches and breakfasts, housing assistance, and energy assistance. Federal taxes are subtracted from income and account for not just income and payroll taxes paid directly by individuals and households, but also taxes paid by businesses (corporate income taxes and the employer s share of Social Security, Medicare, and federal unemployment insurance payroll taxes).
FIGURE 2.3 Share of Americans Who Are Insecure, 1985 to 1995 and 1997 to 27, by Income Quintile a Percentage of Income Quintile 22 2 18 16 14 12 1 8 6 4 2 1985 to 1995 1997 to 27 1 2 3 4 5 Income Quintile Source: Author s compilation based on Hacker et al. (21). a The insecure are those whose available household income declines by at least 25 percent from one year to the next (after adjusting for inflation), as a result of a decline in household income or an increase in out-of-pocket medical spending, and who lack an adequate financial safety net. Thus an individual is considered insecure if the sum of the increase in medical expenditures and lost annual income total at least 25 percent of his or her previous year s available income. Household income includes all private and government sources of income, including the estimated income value of defined-contribution retirement accounts, such as 41(k)s, for households with heads age sixty or older. Household income is adjusted to reflect the economies of scale of pooling household resources and expenses. Household income is also reduced by the amount needed to pay off liquid financial debts when net financial wealth is negative. (All income is adjusted for inflation and expressed in 29 dollars.) Individuals with adequate holdings of liquid financial wealth are not treated as insecure even when they experience 25 percent or higher income losses. We define adequate as enough liquid financial wealth to compensate for the lost income until typical recovery to pre-drop income or for six years, whatever comes first. Those entering retirement are also excluded from the count of the insecure, even if available household income declines by 25 percent or more concurrent with retirement; once retired, however, they are counted as insecure when they experience such declines.
TABLE 2.1 Prevalence of Reported Worry About Economic Risks, Spring 29 Reported Prevalence, by Intensity of Worry Very Fairly Slightly Not At All Domains of Risk Worried Worried Worried Worried Overall economic security 24.3% 28.5% 35.7% 11.5% Employment Keeping or finding a job 19.2 19.7 3.7 3.5 Wealth and housing Keeping up with housing 12.4 11.6 25. 55. payments Getting out of debt 2.6 18.6 25.4 35.4 Adequate retirement income 3.1 24.1 25.7 2. Nursing home costs in 11.5 15.5 32.5 4.5 retirement Medical insurance Out-of-pocket medical costs 19. 22.1 34.6 24.3 Losing health insurance 17.3 16.7 31.1 35. Cost of insurance premiums 19.9 22.4 35.8 21.9 Familial responsibilities Helping out family financially 11.6 2. 38.4 3. Losing one s spouse or 21.8 17.7 27.2 33.3 partner Source: Author s compilation based on American National Election Studies (28 29). Note: 28 to 29 Panel Study, wave 15, comprising U.S. citizens in the general population age eighteen or older as of November 28, fielded between March 11 and April 9, 29.
TABLE 4.1 Percentage Below Two Thirds of Median Wage in 27, for Various Groups All 24.% Men 18.9 Women 29.6 High school dropout 59.5 High school diploma 34. Some college 22. College degree 8.2 White 22.8 African American 33.4 Hispanic 44.1 Government employment 13.3 Private for-profit employment 27.1 Employment covered by union contract 8.5 Full-time employment 2. Part-time employment 49.2 Source: Author s compilation based on data from U.S. Census Bureau (27).
TABLE 4.2 Company Size and Below-Standard Wages a Company Size Percentage of Distribution of (By Number Employees Paid Workers Paid Distribution of Employees) Below Standard Below Standard of All Employees Fewer than 25 4.1% 33.1% 2.5% 25 to 99 27.9 15.4 13.6 1 to 499 22.3 13.6 15.1 More than 5 18.4 37.7 5.6 Total 1 1 Source: Author s compilation based on data from U.S. Census Bureau (27). Note: Data are for civilian wage and salary employees between the ages of 25 and 64. a An hourly wage of $11 (in 27 dollars) or less is below standard.
TABLE 4.3 Policy Choices Goal Standard Setting Programmatic Make bad jobs good Minimum wage Living wages Unionization Career ladders Intermediaries Sectoral programs Create more good jobs Community benefit agreements Managed tax incentive Extension services Sectoral programs Consortia or partnerships under business or union auspices Source: Author s compilation.
FIGURE 6.1 Average Length of School Term, 187 to 26, in Days Number of Days 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 1 1869 to 187 132.2 13.3 134.7 144.3 1879 to 188 1889 to 189 1899 to 19 161.9 157.5 172.7 175. 177.9178.178.9 178.5 179.8 181.3 181. 179.7 199 to 191 1919 to 192 1929 to 193 1939 to 194 1949 to 195 1959 to 196 1969 to 197 1979 to 198 199 to 1991 Year 2 to 21 24 to 25 26 to 27 Source: Authors compilation based on data from the U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (1997, 1999, 28).
FIGURE 6.2 Cutbacks from Work to Care for Others, by Age of Respondent Percentage of Cutbacks Taken 6 5 4 3 2 1 55 5 36 28 13 15 11 9 3 31 Own Grandchildren or Children Other Children Age of Respondent 25 to 34 35 to 44 45 to 54 55 to 64 31 65 to 74 26 23 219 18 15 12 12 12 14 9 1 6 6 Parents Spouse or Partner Other Adults 7 7 2 2 Multiple Generations Source: Authors adaptation of previous research (Heymann 2a).
FIGURE 6.3 Respondents Reasons for Taking Cutbacks from Work, by Age of Respondents Percentage of Cutbacks Taken 5 4 3 2 1 41 31 23 29 17 Health Of Family Member 35 23 15 25 39 School Or Child Care Age of Respondent 25 to 34 35 to 44 45 to 54 55 to 64 65 to 74 1 11 8 6 6 6 2 2 1 Eldercare Death 26 22 34 17 28 Transportation and Other Instrumental Support 4 18 1819 Other Reasons Source: Authors adaptation of previous research (Heymann 2a).
FIGURE 6.4 Parents Lack of Paid Leave from Work, by Income a Percentage of Parents 1 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 74 61 43 Lack Sick Leave Family Income as a Percentage of the Federal Poverty Line < 1% 1 to 2% 57 > 2% 54 38 28 Lack Vacation Leave 34 25 Lack Sick and Vacation Leave 8 68 45 Have Less Than Two Weeks of Paid Sick and Vacation Leave Source: Authors adaptation of previous research (Heymann et al. 22). a Bars represent parents who lacked benefits some or all of the time they worked between 1994 and 1998.
FIGURE 6.5 Types of Job Inflexibility, by Family Income Percentage of Working Adult Caregivers Who... 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Family Income Quartile to 25% 68 26 to 5% 51 to 75% 62 59 76 to 1% 38 33 28 14 Cannot Decide When to Take Breaks 38 Cannot Choose Starting and Quitting Times 54 5 Cannot Change Starting and Quitting Times (Among Those Who Can Choose) 71 53 47 48 3 34 Cannot Take Off for Sick Children Source: Authors adaptation of previous research (Heymann 2a).
FIGURE 6.6 Global Availability of Paid Leave for New Mothers Paid Leave for New Mothers No paid leave for mothers Less than 14 weeks 14 to 25 weeks 26 to 51 weeks 52 weeks or more Insufficient data Source: Authors adaptation of previous research (Heymann and Earle 21).
FIGURE 6.7 Maximum Paid Paternity and Parental Leave Available to Fathers in Countries Providing Leave 3 28 Number of Countries 25 2 15 1 5 13 < 1 1 to 6 7 to 11 12 to 13 6 2 14 to 17 to 2 to 16 19 39 Number of Weeks 5 4 to 51 11 52 to 13 8 14 to 155 156+ Source: Authors adaptation of previous research (Heymann and Earle 21). FIGURE 6.8 Number of Weeks of Paid Annual Leave in Countries Mandating Leave Number of Countries 6 5 4 3 2 1 3 Up to 1 week 52 48 19 1.1 to 2 weeks 2.1 to 3 weeks 3.1 to 4 weeks Number of Weeks 4 > 4 weeks Source: Authors adaptation of previous research (Heymann and Earle 21).
FIGURE 6.9 Number of Days of Paid Sick Leave 14 12 124 Number of Countries 1 8 6 4 2 3 2 3 Not specified 1 to 6 days 7 to 1 days Number of Days 31 11 to 3 days 31 days or more Source: Authors adaptation of previous research (Heymann and Earle 21).
FIGURE 8.1 State-Level Network of Funding and Other Implementation Resources State-Level Governance Corporate Founders Private Foundations United Way Intermediary Intermediary Intermediary Direct Service Nonprofit Direct Service Nonprofit Direct Service Nonprofit Direct Service Nonprofit Direct Service Nonprofit Source: Author s illustration.
TABLE 8.1 Design Elements Needed to Reconstitute the Safety Net Design Element Roles Promising Examples Direct service providers Work to ensure that basic principles of service delivery are achieved: Fair application of policy Accessible services Appropriate matching of service to need Reliable information Multiservice organizations Centers for Working Families Enhanced case management through information systems Intermediary agencies Public governance Work to increase the efficient sharing of resources within the network around the following: Financial resources Program capacity Organizational capacity Network capital Policy understanding Work as systemwide guardian to achieve public intent (enable workers to navigate and thrive in low-wage labor market): Fair eligibility determination Design and integrate network Guard against privateinterest capture Monitor systemwide results Joint fund development for public and private sources Tools and technical assistance for direct service Facilitated peer learning Advocacy training; fiscal and social analysis Electronic application and eligibility verification Source: Author s compilation.