LINEAR PROGRAMMING C H A P T E R 7

LINEAR PROGRAMMING C H A P T E R 7

INTRODUCTION In decision making, when there is only one limiting factor (scarce resource), we can rank the products according the contribution per unit of scarce resource. If we faced with more than one limiting factor, then linear programming is used. Now the limiting factors are called constraints Still the decision rule is to allocate the resources to products according to the contribution per unit of scarce resource, subject to any other constraint, or it can be used to minimize costs instead. Result of linear programming would be to obtain an optimal plan which either maximizes contribution or minimizes the costs.

STEP-BY-STEP TECHNIQUE The technique requires the translation of a decision problem into a system of variables, equation and inequalities. Example A company produces 2 products in 3 departments. Details are shown below regarding the time per unit required in each department, the available hours in each department and the contribution per unit of each product:

STEP-BY-STEP TECHNIQUE Product X Product Y Hours per unit Hours per unit Avaialble hours Department A 8 10 11,000 Department B 4 10 9,000 Department C 12 6 12,000 Contribution per unit ($) 4 8 Required: Following the procedure for the graphical solution, define the optimum production plan.

STEP-BY-STEP TECHNIQUE Step 1 Define the variables First step is to simplify the equations by using abbreviations for the products or variables. Let X = number of units of product X produced Let Y = number of units of ptoduct Y produced

STEP-BY-STEP TECHNIQUE Step 2 - State the objective function Objective function expresses the total contribution that will be made from the production of the 2 products and it is to maximise contribution. Objective function is stated in terms of defined variables. In the case minimising the cost, then it would be an equation for a total cost line. Contribution (Z) = 4X + 8Y where contribution Z is the total contribution that can be achieved.

STEP-BY-STEP TECHNIQUE Step 3 state the constraints Ecah constraint should be expressed an equation. This involves illustrating that the total for the resource must be less than or equal to the total of that resource that is available. Here the total hours used for the production of X and Y should be less than the hours available in each department.

STEP-BY-STEP TECHNIQUE For the completeness, X,Y 0 (number of units should not be negative) Department Hours required Hours available Inequality derived A 8X + 10Y 11,000 8X + 10Y 11,000 B 4X + 10Y 9,000 4X + 10Y 9,000 C 12X + 6Y 12,000 12X + 6Y 12,000

STEP-BY-STEP TECHNIQUE Step 4 Draw the graph Then the constraints can be plotted on a graph. Each constraint plotted at it maximum possible point. This should allow for the identification of the feasible region of production values. The feasible region represents all the possible production combinations that the company may undertake.

STEP-BY-STEP TECHNIQUE Feasible area is defined as an area contains within all of the constraint lines shown on a graphical depiction of a linear programming problem. All feasible combinations of output are contained within, or located on, the boundaries of the feasible region. If such an area does not exist, then the model has no solution.

STEP-BY-STEP TECHNIQUE

STEP-BY-STEP TECHNIQUE Step 5 Find the optimum solution A profit line can then be used to determine the outer most point of the feasible region. this will be the optimal point of production. There are 2 methods of finding optimal solution. 1. Using simultaneous equations, calculate the coordinates at each vertex. Then calculate the contribution and choose the coordinates which give the highest contribution. 2. Draw an iso-contribution (or profit ) line that shows all the combinations of X and Y that provide the same total value for the objective function. Using this iso-contribution line, determine the furthest point of feasible region from the origin. (This can be obtained by drawing a parallel line for isocontribution line.)

STEP-BY-STEP TECHNIQUE Opimal point is at C in the feasible region in this example. Therefore; 8X + 10Y = 11,000 4X + 10Y = 9,000 This gives X = 500 and Y = 700 Therefore the maximum contribution is; $4 X 500 + $8 X 700 = $7,600

SLACK AND SURPLUS Slack Slack is the amount of resource that is under-utilized when the optimum plan is implemented. Slack is important because it can be used for another purpose. A constraint that has a slack of zero is known as a scarce resource. Scarce resource are fully utilized resources. It is defined as the amount of each resource which will be unused if a specific linear programming solution is implemented. Surplus This is utilization of a resource over and above a minimum. Surpluses tend to arise in minimization of cost problems.

BINDING CONSTRAINTS AND NON-BINDING COSNTRAINTS Constaints which have no slack are called binding constraints. If there is slack in one resource, then it is known as a nonbinding constaint. In the example; Hours in department A and B are binding constraints whereas hours in deparment C is non-binding constraint. The slack in department C is; 500 X 12 + 700 X 6 = 10,200 hours (utilisation in department C) 12,000 10,200 = 1,800 hours (slack in department C)

SHADOW PRICE Shadow price is the premium (over and above the normal price) it would be worth paying to obtain one more unit of the scarce resource. It is defined as the increase in value which would be created by having available one additional unit of a limiting resource at its original cost. This represents the opportunity cost of not having the use of the one extra unit. This information is routinely produced when mathematical programming is used to model activity.

SHADOW PRICE Shadow prices in deparment A We need to calculate if one extra hour in department A was made available, so that 11,001 hours were available, the new optimum product mix would be at the intersection of the 2 constraint lines. 8X + 10Y = 11,001 hrs 4X + 10Y = 9,000 hrs resulting;

SHADOW PRICE Units Contribution per unit Total contribution X 500.25 $4 $2,001 Y 699.90 $8 $5,599.2 $7,600.20 Therefore, the increase in contribution from one extra hour in Department A is $0.20. this is the shadow price. Shadow price in department B can also be calculated in the same way and that amounts to $0.60 extra per hour.

LIMITATIONS TO LINEAR PROGRAMMING Linear relationships must exist. Only suitable when there is one clearly defined objective function. When there are number of variables, it becomes too complex to solve manually and a computer is required It is assumed that the variables are completely divisible. Single value estimates are used the uncertain variables. It is assumed that the situation remains static in all other respects.

VARIANCE ANALYSIS: CALCUL ATIONS C H A P T E R 8

STANDARD COSTING Standard costing is a technique which establishes predetermined estimates of the costs of products and services and then compares these predetermined costs with actual costs as they are incurred. Predetermined costs are known as standard costs. A variance is the difference between actual results and the budget or standard. When actual results are better than expected results, a favourable variance occurs denoted as (F). When actual results are worse than expected results, an adverse variance occurs denoted as (A).

STANDARD COSTING A standard price for a product or service is the expected price for selling the standard product or service. When there is a standard sales price and a standard cost per unit, there is also a standard profit per unit (absorption costing) or standard contribution per unit (marginal costing). The difference between budgetary control and variance analysis is that budgetary control is concerned with controlling total costs, whereas standard costing and variance analysis are concerned with unit costs.

TYPES OF STANDARDS There are 4 main types of standards.

TYPES OF STANDARDS

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS PROVIDED IN CIMA OFFICIAL TERMINOLOGY Term Standard Sales price variance Sales volume variance Total direct material variance Definition A benchmark measurement of resource usage or revenue or profit generation, set in defined conditions. Change in revenue caused by the actual selling price differing from that budgeted. Measure of the effect on contribution/profit of not achieving the budgeted volume fo sales. Measurement of the difference between the standard material cost of the output produced and the material cost incurred.

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS PROVIDED IN CIMA OFFICIAL TERMINOLOGY Term Material price variance Material usage variance Total direct labour variance Direct labour rate variance Definition The difference between the actual price paid for purchased materials and their price. Measures efficiency in the use of material, by comparing the standard material usage for actual production with actual material used, the difference is valued at standard cost. Indicates the difference between the standard direct labour cost of the output which has been produced and the actual direct labour cost incurred. Indicates the actual cost of any change from the standard labour rate of remuneration.

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS PROVIDED IN CIMA OFFICIAL TERMINOLOGY Term Direct labour efficiency variance Direct labour idle time variance Variable production overhead total variance Definition Standard labour cost of any change from the standard level of labour efficiency. This variance occurs when the hours paid exceed the hours worked and there is an extra cost caused by the idle time. Its computation increases the accuracy of the labour efficiency variance. Measures the difference between the variable overhead that should be used for actual output and variable production overhead actually used.

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS PROVIDED IN CIMA OFFICIAL TERMINOLOGY Term Variable production overhead expenditure variance Variable production overhead efficiency variance Definition Indicates the actual cost of any change from the standard rate per hour. Hours refer to either labour or machine hours depending on the recovery base chosen for variable production overhead. Standard variable overhead cost of any change from the standard level of efficiency.

FORMULAE FOR VARIANCES Sales variances Sales price variance = AP X AQ - SP X AQ = (AP-SP) X AQ Sales volume variance = AQ SQ Variance can be valued in one of 3 ways. At the standard profit per unit if using absorption costing At the standard contribution per unit if using marginal costing At the standard revenue per unit this is rarely used SP SQ AP AQ standard sales price standard quantity actual sales price actual quantity

FORMULAE FOR VARIANCES Direct material cost variances Direct material total variance = SQ X SP AQ X AP If material is valued at standard cost, then the calculation should be performed using the quantity of materials purchased. If material is valued at actual cost, then the calculation should be performed using the quantity of materials used. Direct material price variance = AQ X SP AQ X AP = (SP AP) X AQ Direct material usage variance = SQ X SP AQ X SP = (SQ - AQ) X SP SP SQ AP AQ standard sales price standard quantity actual sales price actual quantity

FORMULAE FOR VARIANCES Direct labour cost variances Direct labour total variance = SH X SR AH X AR Direct labour rate variance = AH X SR AH X AR = (SR-AR) X AH Direct labour efficiency variance = SH X SR AH X SR = (SH - AH) X SR If there is idle time recorded, then the efficiency variance should be further separated into 2 parts which are; An idle time variance An efficiency variance during active (productive) hours If there is no standard idle time set, then the idle time variance is always adverse. SH SR AH AR - standard hours - standard rate - actual hours - actual rate

FORMULAE FOR VARIANCES Variable production overhead costs variances Since variable production overheads are assumed to be vary with labour hours worked, labour hours are used in the calculation. Variable production overheads total variance = SH X SR AH X AR Variable production overhead expenditure variance = AH X SR AH X AR = (SR - AR) X AH Variable production overhead efficiency variance = SH X SR AH X SR SH SR AH AR = (SH - AH) X SR When there is idle time recorded, efficiency variance is further broken down into 2 parts which are; The standard variable overhead cost of the active hours worked The actual variable overhead cost - standard hours - standard rate - actual hours - actual rate

FORMULAE FOR VARIANCES Fixed production overhead costs variances Fixed production overhead total variance = AQ X SFOAR AFOH If this is positive, then it is over absorbed which is favourable. If it is negative it is under absorbed which is adverse. Fixed production overhead expenditure variance = SQ X SFOAR AFOH Fixed production overhead volume variance = (AQ-SQ) X SFOAR This variance is further broken down into fixed production overhead capacity and fixed production overhead efficiency (explained later). In marginal costing foxed overheads are not absorbed into the cost of production. For this reason there is no fixed production overhead volume variance. Only fixed production overhead expenditure variance is reported. SQ - standard output SFOAR - standard fixed overhead absorption rate AFOH - actual fixed overhead AQ - actual output

OPERATING STATEMENT This is a top level variance report, reconciling the budgeted and actual profit for the period. Below is an example. $ $ $ Budgeted gross profit 100,000 Sale volume profit variance 15,000F Budgeted profit from actual sales volume 115,000 Sales price variance 28,750F Cost variances Adverse Favourabl e Direct material A Price 3,100 Usage 10,000 Direct material B Price 3,050 Usage 7,500 Direct labour Efficiency 7,000 Rate 12,000 Idle time 3,000 Variable overhead Efficiency 4,000 Fixed product overhead Actual gross profit Expenditur e Expenditur e Volume 30,400 3,500 11,500 143, 750 37, 500 57, 550 20,050F 163, 800

VARIANCE REPORTING A top level report reconciling budgeted and actual profit should be prepared for senior management. Variance reports might be prepared for individual managers with responsibility for a particular aspect of operations. E.g. regional sales managers might be sent variance reports showing sales price and sales volume variances for their region. Variance reporting can also be used for service industries. For variance analysis and reporting, standard costing can be done using activity based costing to set standards.

VARIANCE ANALYSIS: DISCUSSION ELEMENTS C H A P T E R 9

VARIANCE INVESTIGATION Variances arise naturally in standard costing because a standard cost is a long term average cost. Variances may also arise due to; Poor budgeting Poor recording of cost Operational reasons (the key emphasis in exam questions) Random factors

VARIANCE INVESTIGATION When should a variance be investigated? Size of the variance The likelihood of the variance being controllable or its cause already known The likely cost of an investigation Interrelationship of variances Type of standard that was set As a rule of thumb, 5% of its standard cost may be worth investigating. But costs tend to fluctuate around a norm and determining when to investigate is a question. Managers may know the cause of the variance and controllability of the variances through their experience. The cost have to be weighed against the cost which would be incurred if the variance were allowed to continue in future periods. Adverse variance in one area may be interrelated with another favourable variance. E.g. adverse direct material price variance can lead to favourable usage variance since material purchased is in good quality and there will be less wastages. If most of the variances appear to be favourable, then the standards set might be basic, hence it is required to revise standards.

VARIANCE INVESTIGATION TECHNIQUES Reporting by exception Variance reports might identify significant variances. This is a form of reporting by exception, in which a particular attention is given to the aspects of performance that appear to be exceptionally good or bad. Cumulative variances and control charts An alternative method of identifying significant variances is to investigate the cause or causes of a variance only if the cumulative total for the variance over several control periods exceeds a certain limit.

VARIANCE INVESTIGATION TECHNIQUES Setting the control limits The control limit used as a basis for determining whether a variance should be investigated may be set statiscally based on the normal distribution. e.g. If a company has a policy to investigate variances that fall outside the range that includes 95% of outcomes, then variances which exceed 1.96 standard deviations from the standard would be investigated.

INTERPRETATION OF VARIANCES Possible operational causes of variances are as follows. Material price Using a different supplier, who is either cheaper or more expensive. Buying in larger-sized orders, and getting larger bulk purchase discounts. Buying in smaller-sized orders and losing planned bulk purchase discounts. An unexpected increase in the prices charged by a supplier. Unexpected buying costs, such as high delivery charges. Efficient or inefficient buying procedures. A change in material quality, resulting in either higher or lower purchase prices.

INTERPRETATION OF VARIANCES Material usage A higher-than-expected or lower-than-expected rate of scrap or wastage. Using a different quality of material (higher or lower quality) would affect the wastage rate. Defective materials Better quality control More efficient work procedures, resulting in better material usage rates Changing the materials mix to obtain a more expensive or less expensive mix than the standard.

INTERPRETATION OF VARIANCES Labour rate An unexpected increase in basic rates of pay Payment of bonuses, where these are recorded as direct labour costs. Using labour that is more or less experienced (and so more or less expensive) than the standard. A change in the competition of the work force, and so a change in average rates of pay.

INTERPRETATION OF VARIANCES Labour efficiency Taking more or less time than expected to complete work, due to efficient or inefficient working. Using labour that is more or less experienced (and so or more or less efficient) than the standard. A change in the composition or mix of the workforce, and so a change in level of efficiency. Improved working methods Industrial action by the workforce: working to rule Poor supervision Improvement in efficiency due to a learning effect amongst the workforce. Unexpected lost time due to production bottlenecks and resource shortages.

INTERPRETATION OF VARIANCES Overhead variances Fixed overhead expenditure adverse variances are caused by spending in excess of the budget. A more detailed analysis of the expenditure variance would be needed to establish why actual expenditure has been higher or lower than budget. The fixed overhead volume variance (and therefore the capacity and efficiency variance) is caused by changes in production volume(which in turn might be caused by changes in sales volume or through increased labour productivity.) Variable production overhead expenditure variances are often caused by changes in machine running costs (for example, if electricity rates have been changed.) Variable production overhead efficiency variancesl the causes are similar to those for a direct labour efficiency variance.

INTERPRETATION OF VARIANCES Sales price Higher-than-expected discounts offered to customers to persuade them to buy, or due to purchasing in bulk. Lower-than-expected discounts, perhaps due to strength of sales demand. The effect of low price offers during a marketing campaign. Market conditions forcing an industry-wide price change.

INTERPRETATION OF VARIANCES Sales volume Successful or unsuccessful direct selling efforts Successful or unsuccessful marketing efforts (for example, the effects of an advertising campaign) Unexpected changes in customer needs and buying habits Failure to satisfy demand due to production difficulties Higher demand due to a cut in selling prices, or lowest demand due to an increase in sale prices.

POSSIBLE INTERDEPENDENCE BETWEEN VARIANCES Some examples would be; Using cheaper materials will lead to favourable price variance, but an adverse variance in usage variance. A more expensive material mix will lead to an adverse mix variance, but a favourable yield variance (discussed in the next chapter). Using more experienced labour will lead to adverse labour rate variance, but favourable efficiency variance. Cutting sales prices will lead to adverse sale price variance, but a favourable sales volume variance.

STANDARD COSTING IN THE MODERN MANUFACTURING ENVIRONMENT Standard costing may be inappropriate in the modern production environment because; Products in these environments tend not to be standardized. Standard costs become outdated quickly Production is highly automated. Therefore underlying assumption in standard costing that control can be exercised by concentrating on the efficiency of the workforce would be not correct.

STANDARD COSTING IN THE MODERN MANUFACTURING ENVIRONMENT Modern environments often use ideal standards rather than current standards The emphasis is on continuous improvement to preset standards become less useful. Variance analysis may not give enough detail. Because variance analysis is often carried out on an aggregate basis. Variance reports may arrive too late to solve problems. Because managers need more real time information about events as they occur.

ADAPTATIONS TO TRADITIONAL STANDARD COSTING SYSTEMS TO ADDRESS CRITICISMS Regular updates to standard costs Use of demanding performance standards help continuous improvement. Produce a broader analysis of variances that are less aggregated. Development of real time information systems Enhance planning and control by adapting to standard components and activities of not standardised jobs.

ADVANCED VARIANCES C H A P T E R 1 0

MATERIAL MIX VARIANCE The material mix variance arises when the mix of materials used differs from the predetermined mix included in the calculation of the standard cost of an operation. Mix variance measures whether the actual mix that occurred was more or less expensive than the standard mix. If the mixture is varied, so that a larger than expected proportion of a more expensive material is used there will be an adverse variance. When a larger than proportion of cheaper material is included in the mix, then a favourable variance occurs.

CALCULATING MATERIAL MIX VARIANCE A. Individual units method I. Write down the actual input II. Take the actual input in total and push it down one line and then work it back in the standard proportions. (This is the standard mix) III. Calculate the difference between the standard mix (line 2) and the actual mix (line 1). This is the mix variance in terms of physical quantities and must add up to zero in total. (if you use a higher than expected proportion of one material, you must use a lower than expected proportion of something else.) IV. Multiply by the standard price per kg V. This gives the mix variance in financial terms.

CALCULATING MATERIAL MIX VARIANCE Material A Material B Total Kg Kg Kg 1. Actual input N N NN 2. Actual input in standard proportion N N NN 3. Difference in quantity N N 4. X Standard price X $N X $N 5. Mix variance $N $N $N

CALCULATING MATERIAL MIX VARIANCE The actual mix The actual quantities of materials used (for each material individually and in total) Refer line 1 in previous table The standard mix The actual total quantity of materials used, with the total divided between the individual materials in the standard proportions. Refer line 2 in previous table

CALCULATING MATERIAL MIX VARIANCE The mix variance in units of materials is the difference between the actual mix and the standard mix. A mix variance is calculated for each individual material in the mix. Remember what a mix variance means... Using a higher proportion of an expensive material is adverse, but using a higher proportion of a cheaper material would actually be regarded as favourable.

MATERIAL YIELD VARIANCE The material yield variance arises when there is a difference between the standard output for a given level of input and the actual output attained. A yield variance is similar to the material usage variance. However, instead of calculating a usage variance for each material separately, a single yield variance is calculated for all the material as a whole. the yield variance is calculated in terms of units of material, and is converted into a money value at the weighted average standard cost per unit of material. Then the yield variance tell us the effect of varying the total input of a factor of production (e.g. material or labour) while holding constant the input mix and the weighted average unit price of the factor of production.

CALCULATING MATERIAL YIELD VARIANCE I. Calculate the standard yield. This is the expected output from the actual input. II. III. IV. Compare this to actual yield. The difference is the yield variance in physical terms. To express the variance in financial terms, we multiply by the standard cost. One thing to be careful of however is that the yield variance considers outputs and so the standard cost is the standard cost per kg of output. 1. Standard yield of actual input N 2. Actual yield N 3. Difference in yields N 4. X std cost per kg of output X $N Kg $N

LABOUR MIX VARIANCE The labour mix variance arises when the mix of labour used differs from the predetermined mix included in the calculation of the standard cost of an operation. Mix variance measures whether the actual mix that occurred was more or less expensive than the standard mix. If the mixture is varied, so that a larger than expected proportion of a higher grade of labour is used there will be an adverse variance. When a larger than proportion of lower grade of labour is included in the mix, then a favourable variance occurs.

CALCULATING LABOUR MIX VARIANCE A. Individual units method I. Write down the actual hours II. Take the actual hours in total and push it down one line and then work it back in the standard proportions. (This is the standard mix) III. Calculate the difference between the standard mix (line 2) and the actual mix (line 1). This is the mix variance in terms of hours and must add up to zero in total. (if you use a higher than expected proportion of one type of labour, you must use a lower than expected proportion of another type.) IV. Multiply by the standard rate per hour V. This gives the mix variance in financial terms.

CALCULATING LABOUR MIX VARIANCE Skilled labour Unskilled labour Total Hrs Hrs Hrs 1. Actual hours N N NN 2. Actual hours in standard proportion N N NN 3. Difference in quantity N N 4. X Standard rate X $N X $N 5. Mix variance $N $N $N

CALCULATING LABOUR YIELD VARIANCE I. Calculate the standard yield. This is the expected output from the actual input. II. III. IV. Compare this to actual yield. The difference is the yield variance in hours. To express the variance in financial terms, we multiply by the standard cost. One thing to be careful of however is that the yield variance considers outputs and so the standard cost is the standard cost per hour of output. 1. Standard yield of actual hours N 2. Actual yield N 3. Difference in yields N 4. X std cost per hour of output X $N Kg $N

CALCULATING LABOUR MIX VARIANCE The actual mix The actual labour hours used (for each type of labour individually and in total) Refer line 1 in tables in previous 2 slides The standard mix The actual total labour hours used, with the total divided between the individual labour hours in the standard proportions. Refer line 2 in previous table

CALCULATING LABOUR MIX VARIANCE The mix variance in units of labour hours is the difference between the actual mix and the standard mix. A mix variance is calculated for each individual type of labour in the mix. Remember what a mix variance means... Using a higher proportion of an higher grade of labour is adverse, but using a higher proportion of lower grade of labour would actually be regarded as favourable.

USING MIX AND YIELD VARIANCES Two or more materials might be used in making a product or providing a service. If standard costing is used and the mix of the materials is seen as controllable, a materials mix variance and a material yield variance can be calculated. These provide a further analysis of the materials usage variance. Two or more different types of labour might be used to make a product or provide a service. If standard costing is used and the labour mix in the team seen as controllable, a labour mix variance and a labour yield variance can be calculated. These provide a further analysis of the labour efficiency variance. If the mix cannot be controlled, it is inappropriate to calculate mix and yield variance. Instead a usage variance should be calculated for each individual material or an efficiency variance should be calculated for each material type or grade of labour. i.e. if the mix cannot be controlled, the usage or efficiency variance should not be analyses into a mix and yield variance.

LIMITATIONS OF MIX VARIANCES Mix and yield variances can provide useful control information where the mix of material or labour is controllable. Since mix and yield variances are interdependent, one cannot be discussed in isolation. If management is able to achieve a cheaper mixture of materials or labour without affecting yield, then the standard becomes obsolete. Control measures to improve the mix will lead to poor quality of output. It means that variances do not account for quality. Mix and yield variances are based on standard rates and prices which may be different from market values. These may have to be taken into consideration for overall assessment.

SALES MIX AND QUANTITY The sales volume variance can be analyses into mix and quantity components using the same logic encountered in regard to materials usage and labor efficiency variances. This can be illustrated by the following example. A furniture company manufactures high quality dining room furniture that is sold to major retail stores. Extracts form the budget for last year are given below. Tables Chairs Sideboards Sales quantity (units) 8,000 26,000 6,000 Average selling price $2,200 $320 $2,800 Direct material cost per unit $1,000 $160 $1,200 Direct labour cost per unit $400 $60 $600 Variable overhead cost per unit $40 $6 $60 The budgeted direct labour cost per hour was $20. The actual results for the last year were as follows.

SALES MIX AND QUANTIT Y The actual labour cost per hour was $18.75. Actual variable overhead cost per direct labour hour was $2.50. the company operates a just-intime system for purchasing and production and does not hold any inventory. Calculate the following variances for the furniture company for the last year; The sales mix contribution variance The sales quantity contribution variance Tables Chairs Sideboards Sales quantity (units) 7,200 31,000 7,800 Average selling price $2,400 $310 $2,500 Direct material cost per unit $1,100 $150 $1,300 Direct labour cost per unit $450 $60 $600 Variable overhead cost per unit $60 $8 $80

SOLUTION In order to perform calculations, we need to calculate the contribution per unit of each product. Tables Chairs Sideboards $ per unit $ per unit $ per unit Average selling price 2,200 320 2,800 Direct materials cost per unit 1,000 160 1,200 Direct labour cost per unit 400 60 600 Variable overhead cost per unit 40 6 60 Contribution 760 94 940

SOLUTION Sales mix contribution variance Product Actual sales quantity Actual sales at budget mix Difference Variance from weighted average contribution per unit ($) Mix variance ($,000) Tables 7,200 9,200 2,000A 760-354.10 811.80A Chairs 31,000 29,900 1,100F 94-354.10 286.11A Sideboards 7,800 6,900 900F 940-354.10 527.31F 46,000 46,000 576.60A

SOLUTION Sales quantity contribution variance Product Budget sales quantity Actual sales at budget mix Difference Contribution Mix variance ($,000) Tables 8,000 9,200 1,200F $760 912.00F Chairs 26,000 29,900 3,900F $94 366.60F Sideboards 6,000 6,900 900F $940 846.00F 40,000 40,000 2,124.60A

SOLUTION Variance interpretation The sales quantity contribution variance and the sales mix contribution variance explain how the sales volume contribution variance has been affected by a change in the total quantity of sales and a change in the relative mix of products sold. from the figures calculated for the sales quantity contribution variance, we can say that the increase in total quantity sold would have earned an additional contribution of $2,124,600, if the actual sales volume had been in the budgeted sales mix. The sales mix contribution variance shows that the change in the sales mix resulted in a reduction in profit of $570,000. the change in the sales mix has resulted in a relatively higher proportion of sales of chairs which is the product that earns the lowest contribution and a lower proportion of tables which earn a contribution significantly higher than the weighted average contribution. The relative increase in the sale of sideboards however, which has the highest unit contribution, has partially offset the switch in mix to chairs.

BENEFITS AND PROBLEMS OF MIX AND QUANTITY VARIANCES Benefits The sales mix variance can allow the company to identify trends in sales of individual elements of its total product sales. Problems These variances can be used if the managers have the controllability in the mix and yield. The sales quantity variance can be used to indicate changes in the size of the market and/or the change in the market share for an organization. The sales mix variance may indicate future directions for sales strategies by identifying and exploiting the causes for any favourable variances. Sales mix variance can be used to guage the success or failure of new marketing campaigns. Responsibility acoounting is improved when the sales volume variance split between the sale mix and quantity variance as different managers might be responsible for different elements of sales. Variances cannot be considered on an individual basis. The sales mix is only relevant if the products have some sort of relationship between them. E.g. complementary products It is difficult to apply in companies which have broad range of products.

PLANNING AND OPERATIONAL VARIANCES Planning variance This is the part of the variance caused by an inappropriate original (ex-ante) standard. A planning variance measures the difference between the budgeted and actual profit that has been caused by errors in the original standard cost. It is the difference between the ex-ante and ex-post standards. A planning variance is favourable when the ex post standard cost is lower than the original ex ante standard cost. A planning variance is adverse when the ex post standard cost is higher than the original ex ante standard cost.

PLANNING AND OPERATIONAL VARIANCES Operational variance This is the part of the variance attributable to the decisions taken within the business that has caused a change between the revisited (ex-post) standard and the actual result. Operational variances are variances that are assumed to have occurred due to operational factors. Operational variances are calculated with the realistic ex post standard.

CAUSES OF PLANNING VARIANCE A change in one of the main materials used to make a product or provide a service An unexpected increase in the price of materials due to a rapid increase in world market prices A change in working methods and procedures that alter the expected direct labour time for a product or service An unexpected change in the rate of pay to the work force.

MORE THAN ONE PLANNING ERROR A situation might occur where the difference between the standards is in 2 or more items. In these circumstances, the rules for calculating planning and operational variances are as follows. Operational variances are calculated against the most up to date revision The total planning variance will be the difference between the original standard or budget and the most up to date revision. This can then be further divided between each individual planning error.

MORE THAN ONE PLANNING ERROR Example The original standard cost for a product was $4 per kg and the actual cost was $6 per kg. two planning variances were discovered. Firstly, the accountant had assumed that a bulk discount on purchases would arise but this was never likely, and it meant that the standard should have been set at $4.60 per kg. secondly, a world wide shortage of materials led to an industry wide increase of $1 per kg to the cost of materials. This means that most up to date standard cost would have been $5.60. per kg. the operational variance would therefore be $0.40 ($6-$5.60) per kg adverse and the total planning variance would be $1.60 ($5.60-$4) per kg. the planning variance could then be split between the 2 effects; there is a $0.60 per kg adverse variance caused by the failure to gain the bulk discount, and a $1 per kg adverse variance caused by the market conditions.

BENEFITS AND PROBLEMS IN PLANNING VARIANCES Benefits More useful In volatile and changing environments, standard costing and variance analysis are more useful using this approach. Up-to-date Better for motivation Operational variances are likely to make the standard costing more acceptable and to have a positive impact on motivation. Assesses planning Helps to identify planning deficiencies Problems Subjective Determing realistic standards for ex post standard is subjective Time consuming Can be manipulated Can cause conflict There can be conflict between operation and planning staff.

THE BUDGETING FRAMEWORK C H A P T E R 1 1

PURPOSE OF BUDGETING Planning Control and evaluation Budgets compel planning. Budgeting process forces management to set targets, look ahead, anticipate problems and give the organsation purpose and direction. This is an important technique to convert long term strategies into short term action plans. The budget might possibly be the quantitative reference point available. This helps to compare with actual results and helps to account managers for their tasks and measure the performance of the managers. Co-ordination Budgets serve as a vehicle through which the actions of the different parts of an organization can be brought together and reconciled into a common plan.

PURPOSE OF BUDGETING Communication Motivation Authorisation Budgets communicate targets to managers. Through the budget, top management communicates its expectations to lowerlevel management so that all members of the organization may understand these expectations and can co-ordinate their activities to attain them. A budget can be a useful device for influencing managerial behavior and motivating managers to perform in line with the organizational objectives. A budget may act as formal authorization to a manager for expenditure, the hiring of staff and the pursuit of the plans contained in the budget.

Budget period This is the time for which the budget is prepared, typically 1 year. Budget interval Each budget period is split into control periods known as budget intervals, typically 3 months or 1 month. Functional budget A component of a master budget limited to a particular area of the company. E.g. sales budget, production budget etc. Master budget A master budget for the entire organization brings together the department or activity budgets for all the departments or responsibility centers' within the organsation.

Budget committee Budget committee ensures that coordination between activities in the organisation are considered in budget preparation and reviewing any problems in budget preparation. Budget committee comprise representatives from all functions in the organization. Budget manual A budget manual is a collection of documents which contains key information for those involved in the planning process. Principal budget factor When a key resource is in short supply and affects the planning decisions, it is known as the principal budget factor or limiting budget factor. Sales budget is typically considered as the principal budget factor as the sales demand will be the key factor setting a limit to what the organization can expect to achieve in the budget period. This is the starting point for all other budgets.

1 2 BUDGET PREPARATION Sales budget Production budget Follow steps according to the numbers 3 Raw materials Labour Factory overhead Cost of goods sold budget 4 Selling & distribution expenses budget General administration expense budget 5 Budgeted statement of profit 6 Master Budget Cash budget Capital expenditure budget 7 Statement of financial position

BUDGET PREPARATION Step 1 The sales budget considers how many units can be sold. 2 The production budget considers how many units must be produced to meet the budgeted level of sales. The difference between the sales and the production budgets is the inventory of finished goods. 3 The material, labour and overhead budgets can be established, based on the production budget. Material quantity required for production and quantity required to purchase are calculated in material budget which are material usage and material purchase budgets respectively. Wastages and idle time are accounted. 4 Non-production budgets 5 The master budget comprising the statement of profit or loss, cash 6 budget and statement of financial position can be pulled together from the individual budgets. 7

CASH BUDGET AND CASH FLOW FORECAST A cash forecast is an estimate of cash receipts and payments for a future period under existing conditions. A cash budget is a commitment to a plan for cash receipts and payments for a future period after taking any action necessary to bring the forecast into line with the overall business plan. Cash budgets are used to: Assess and integrate operating budgets Plan for cash shortages and surpluses Compare with actual spending There are 2 different methods to create cash budgets. 1. A receipt and payments method This is a forecast of cash receipts and payments based on predictions of sales and cost of sales and the timings of the cash flows relating to these items. 2. A balance sheet forecast

INTERPRETATION OF A CASH BUDGET Examples of factors to consider when interpreting a cash budget include: Is the balance at the end of the period acceptable/matching expectations? Does the cash balance become a deficit at any time in the period? Is there sufficient finance (e.g. an overdraft) to cover any cash deficits? Should new sources of finance be sought in advance? What are the key causes of cash deficits? Can/should discretionary expenditure (such as asset purchases) be made in another period in order to stabilise the pattern of cash flows? Is there a plan for dealing with cash surpluses (such as reinvesting them elsewhere)? When is the best time to make discretionary expenditure?

SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS There is always a significant degree of uncertainty concerning many of the elements incorporated within a business plan or budget. Sensitivity analysis is used most widely used to report uncertainty in some way. A sensitivity analysis exercise involves revising the budget on the basis of a series of varied assumptions. One assumption can be changed at a time to determine the impact on the budget overall. Refer the example in the next slide. The example shows a range of possible outcomes between the best and the worst case scenarios. This allows managers to take precautions to minimise risks arising from uncertainties.

SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS An organization has a budget for the first quater of the year as follows. Sales: 100 units @ $40 per unit 4,000 Variable costs: 100 units @ $20 per unit (2,000) Fixed costs (1,500) Profit 500 $

SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS There is some uncertainty over the variable cost per unit and that cost could be anywhere between $10 and $30, with $20 as expected outcome. We are required to carry out sensitivity analysis on this. Here we can calculate the best and the worst possible outcomes. Worst case budget ($30 unit variable cost) $ Sales: 100 units @ $40 per unit 4,000 Variable costs: 100 units @ $30 per unit (3,000) Fixed costs (1,500) Profit (500) Best case budget ($10 unit variable cost) $ Sales: 100 units @ $40 per unit 4,000 Variable costs: 100 units @ $10 per unit (1,000) Fixed costs (1,500) Profit (1,500)

PERIODIC VS ROLLING BUDGETS Periodic budget A periodic budget shows the costs and revenue for one period of time. E.g. a year and is updated on a periodic basis. E.g. every 12 months. Rolling budgets (continuous budgets) A rolling budget is a a budget continuously update by adding a further accounting period (month or quarter) when the earliest accounting period has expired (CIMA official terminology). Rolling budgets are also called continuous budgets. Rolling budgets are for a fixed period, but this need not be a full financial year.

PERIODIC VS ROLLING BUDGETS A rolling budget period might be 3 months or 6 months. These budgets are more reliable and accurate since latest external and internal factors for the organisation are accounted for the budget. Rolling budgets are useful in cash budgeting. Because cash management is crucial for a company and it may subject to rapid financial changes, exchange rate fluctuations. Therefore budgets need to be revised ahead.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ROLLING BUDGETS Advantages They reduce uncertainty in budgeting They can be used for cash management They force managers to look ahead continuously When conditions are subject to change, comparing the actual results with a rolling budget is more realistic than comparing actual results with a fixed annual budget. Disadvantages Preparing new budgets regualarly is time consuming. It can be difficult to communicate frequent budget changes.

ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES TO BUDGETING Incremental budgeting The traditional approach to budgeting is to take the previous year s budget and to add on a percentage to allow for inflation and other cost increases. In addition, there may be other adjustments to specific items such as an extra worker or extra machine.

ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES TO BUDGETING Advantages Disadvantages Simple Cheap Suitable in stable environments Most practical Useful in budgeting expenses like telephone, electricity expenses Backward looking Focus on current level of operations Builds on previous efficiencies Previous inefficiencies will continue Does not remove waste/inefficiencies Unsuited to changing environments Not focused on improving the business or adapt to market changes Targets are too easy Activities are not justified Different ways of achieving the objectives will not be examined. Encourages over spending

Zero based budgeting A method of budgeting whereby all activities are reevaluated each time a budget is formulated. Each functional budget start with the assumptions that the function does not exist, and is at zero cost. Increments of costs are compared with increments of benefits, culminating in the planned maximum benefit for a given budgeted cost. Simply, the all activities are budgeted from scratch. Inessential activities and costs are identified and eliminated, by removing them from next year s budget.

Advantages Creates an environment that accepts change Better focus on goals Budgeting is more towards analysis and decision making Forward looking Improves resource utilisation Better performance measures Establishsing priorities for activities provides a framework for the optimum utilisation of resources. Focuses managers examine activities Disadvantages Time-consuming Expensive Encourages short-termism There is a temptation to concentrate on short term cost savings at the expense of longer term benefits. Management may lose focus on the true cost drivers Simply by reducing costs in certain departments may not lead to the root cost savings. E.g. reducing costs in warranty department will not address product reliability. If the products are more reliable, then warranty department s cost will go down. This will not be addressed in ZBB. Manages require new budgeting skills Can result in arbitrary decisions

ACTIVITY BASED BUDGETING As it name should suggest, activity-based budgeting (ABB) takes a similar approach to activity-based on costing. ABB is defined as a method of budgeting based on an activity framework utilising cost driver data in the budget setting and variance feedback processes. Whereas ZBB is based on budgets (decision packages) prepared by responsibility centre managers. ABB is based on budgeting for activities.

ACTIVITY BASED BUDGETING In its simplest form, ABC is about using costs determined via ABC to prepare budgets for each activity. The basic approach of ABB is to budget the costs for each cost pool or activity as follows; 1. The cost driver for each activity is identified. A forecast is made of the number of units of the cost driver that will occur in the budget period. 2. Given the estimate of the activity level of the cost driver, the activity cost is estimated. Where appropriate, a cost per unit of activity, known as the cost driver rate is calculated. There will also some general overhead costs that are not activity related, such as factory rental costs and the salary cost of the factory manager. General overhead costs are budgeted separately.

ACTIVITY BASED BUDGETING Advantages Useful when overheads are significant It draws attention to the cost of overhead activities. Better cost control Provides useful basis for monitoring and controlling overheads costs, by drawing management attention to the actual costs of activities comparing actual costs with what the activities were expected to cost. Better information for management Activity costs might be controllable if the activity volume can be controlled. Disadvantages Expensive implement to Only suited for ABC users Useful for TQM environments