Accounting Concepts, Time Value of Money, and Financial Analysis & Reporting BUS512M November 23, 2013 Session 3 7:00-10:30 Susan Crosson
Homework See Handout
Today s Learning Outcomes Time Value of Money Professional Judgment Accounting Concepts and Principles Accrual Accounting Earning Management and Detecting Accounting Abuse Valuation Methods on the Financial Statements
Key Questions: Future Value v. Present Value? n= number of periods? r=effective or market interest rate? Single payment or Ordinary annuity (multiple payments)? Interest bearing or Noninterest bearing? Draw a Timeline:
Future Value of a Single Sum EA-1 If $150 were invested today, how large a sum could be withdrawn at the end of the following time periods? Compound Interest Rates 5 years 10 years 15 years 5% 10% 15%
Future Value of an Ordinary Annuity EA-3 If $150 were invested at the end of each year over the following time periods, how large a sum could be withdrawn at the end of the final time period? Compound Interest Rates 5 years 10 years 15 years 5% 10% 15%
Future and Present Values EA-9 Ben found $25,000 and decided to invest it. He believes he can earn 10% (compounded annually) on his investment for the first 4 years, 12% for the following 3 years, and 15% for the following 5 years. a. How much money will Ben have at the end of 4 years, 7 years, and 12 years?
Future and Present Values EA-9 Ben found $25,000 and decided to invest it. He believes he can earn 10% (compounded annually) on his investment for the first 4 years, 12% for the following 3 years, and 15% for the following 5 years. b. If someone offered to pay him $36,000 at the end of 4 years for the $25,000, should he accept? Why or why not?
Present Value of a Single Sum EA-2 Compute the present value of $10,000 received at the end of the following time periods at the following discount rates. Compound Interest Rates 5 years 10 years 15 years 5% 10% 15%
Present Value of an Ordinary Annuity EA-5 Compute the present value of $10,000 received at the end of each year over the following time periods at the following discount rates. Compound Interest Rates 5 years 10 years 15 years 5% 10% 15%
Present Value of different payment patterns EA-7 Compute the present value of the payment patterns provided below, given an 8% discount rate. a. $50 at the end of year 2, $100 at the end of year 5, and $80 at the end of year 8.
Present Value of different payment patterns EA-7 Compute the present value of the payment patterns provided below, given an 8% discount rate. b.$100 at the end of years 1,2,3,4; and $100 at the end of year 8.
Present Value of different payment patterns EA-7 Compute the present value of the payment patterns provided below, given an 8% discount rate. c. $60 at the end of years 5,6,7,8; and $100 at the end of year 10.
Present Value of different payment patterns EA-7 Compute the present value of the payment patterns provided below, given an 8% discount rate. d. $90 at the end of years 7,8,9.
Highest Present Value EA-11 Congrats! You have just won the lottery. The lottery board offers you 3 different options for collecting your winnings: 1. Payments of $500,000 at the end of each year for 20 years. Assume that all earnings can be invested at 10% annual rate. Which option should you consider and why?
Highest Present Value EA-11 Congrats! You have just won the lottery. The lottery board offers you 3 different options for collecting your winnings: 2. Lump-sum payment of $4,500,000 today. Assume that all earnings can be invested at 10% annual rate. Which option should you consider and why?
Highest Present Value EA-11 Congrats! You have just won the lottery. The lottery board offers you 3 different options for collecting your winnings: 3. Lump-sum of a $1,000,000 today and payments of $2,100,000 at the end of Years 5, 6, and 7. Assume that all earnings can be invested at 10% annual rate. Which option should you consider and why?
Financial Accounting Fundamentals Assumptions Economic Entity (identified and measured) Fiscal Period (periodicity) Going Concern (life indefinite) Stable Dollar (across time) Measurement Principles Objectivity (Verifiable and documented) Matching and Revenue Recognition (costs & benefits) Consistency (methods same across time) Two Exceptions Materiality little to no effect on user decisions Conservatism -understate assets, overstate liabilities, accelerate losses, and delay gains (due to legal liability) Valuation Input Market (purchase)-original, replacement Output Market (sell)-present, fair market Financial Statements: Original (Historic) Cost: Land, LT Invt Lower of Cost or Market: Inventory Net Realizable Value: net AR Net Book Value: PP&E, Intang. Face: Cash, Current liabilities Fair Market Value (sales price): ST Invt Present Value: LT NR & LTL IFRS v. US GAAP Principles based Rules based
Cash Basis Accounting Primarily used by individuals and small businesses. Not permitted for revenue and expenses measurement and reporting under GAAP. Under cash basis accounting, revenues are recognized only in the period when cash is received. Under cash basis accounting, expenses are recognized only in the period when cash is disbursed. Cash basis accounting Income Statement reports the cash received as revenue and the cash expenses incurred.
Accrual Accounting Basic to financial reporting of corporations. Concerned with the timing of revenue and expense recognition. Purpose is to accurately measure revenues and expenses (and profits) for each accounting period. Accrual accounting s Income Statement attempts to match revenues earned and the expenses incurred, NOT cash flows. Accrual accounting s Statement of Cash Flows reports the cash inflows and outflows for the period.
Accrual Accounting Revenues Revenues are recognized and recorded when they are (1) earned and are (2) realized or realizable. Revenues are earned when the primary revenue generating activities are substantially completed (usually the point of delivery of goods or completion of services, i.e., title passes). Revenues are realized when cash is collected. Revenues are realizable when a viable and measurable claim to cash is acquired. A viable claim is one that is expected to be collected under normal terms of collection. The actual receipt of cash is not required for revenue to be recognized, and in many cases the receipt of cash does not trigger an immediate recognition of revenue. Hence, under accrual accounting, depending on when both conditions (earned & realized) have been met, it may be necessary to recognize revenues either before, at the time, or after cash is collected, i.e. accruals, unearned.
4 Criteria for Recognizing Revenue 1. The company has completed a significant portion of the production and sales efforts. 2. The amount of revenue can be objectively measured. 3. The company has incurred the majority of costs, and remaining costs can be reasonably estimated, and 4. Cash collection is reasonably assured.
When is revenue recognized?
Accrual Accounting Expenses Accrual accounting recognizes expenses when the cost of goods and services consumed expires. An expense is and expired cost; one that has no future benefit. A cost that is associated with a future benefit is an unexpired cost, an asset, not an expense. The actual payment of cash is not required before an expense can be recognized, and in some cases the payment of cash to employees/vendors/suppliers does not trigger an immediate recognition of expense. Hence, under accrual accounting, depending on when a cost expires, it may be necessary to recognize expenses either before, at the time, or after cash is disbursed, i.e. accrual, prepaid.
Accruals and Deferrals An accrual asset or liability is created on the balance sheet any time revenue or expense is recognized (accrued) BEFORE the associated cash flow is received or paid. Examples: Accounts Receivable, Interest Receivable, Accounts Payable, Taxes Payable.[Expense now, Pay later. OR Receive later, Revenue now.] A deferral asset or liability is created on the balance sheet anytime cash is collected or paid BEFORE the associated expense or revenue is recognized (deferred). Examples: Inventories, Prepaid expenses, Equipment, Unearned revenues.
Accrual Income Statement Reported revenues include: Revenues collected in a prior period deferred to the current period (reported previously on the balance sheet as a liability, Unearned Revenues) Revenues collected in the current period that were also earned currently. Revenues earned (and accrued) currently that will be collected in future periods (reported currently on the balance sheet as an asset, Accounts Receivable.
Accrual Income Statement Reported expenses include: The cost of goods or services consumed in the current period that were paid for in a prior period, but deferred to the current period (reported previously on the balance sheet as an asset; i.e., Inventories, Prepaid Expenses). The cost of goods or services consumed in the current period that were also paid for in the current period. The cost of goods or services consumed in the current period that will be paid for in future periods (reported on the current balance sheet as a liability; i.e., Accounts Payable).
Accrual Balance Sheet Assets on the Balance Sheet include: Something that has future or potential value. Future expenses for which cash has already been paid. (Prepaid i.e., deferred Expenses) Past revenues for which cash has not been collected. (Accounts Receivable i.e., accrued revenues) Liabilities on the Balance Sheet include: Responsibilities or promises to others Past expenses for which cash has not been paid. (Accrued Expenses Payable) Future revenues for which cash has already been collected. (Deferred or Unearned Revenues)
Accrual Balance Sheet Insights Cash+ Accounts Receivable+Deferred Expenses=Accrued Expenses+Deferred Revenue +Retained Earnings If a company has an increase in net asset accruals during a period, cash flow from operations will be less than net income. If a company has a decrease in net asset accruals during the period, cash flows from operations will be more than net income. Net Asset Accruals = Accounts Receivable+Deferred Expenses - Accrued Expenses+Deferred Revenue Because accruals/deferrals often involve subjective judgments, analysts monitor changes in accruals & deferrals for the period to identify possible earnings management. They are especially sensitive to situations in which changes in accrual/deferrals result in net income exceeding cash flow from operations for the period by a significant amount.
Subjective Judgments Valuation Input Market (purchase)-original, replacement Output Market (sell)-present, fair market Financial Statements: Original (Historic) Cost: Land, LT Invt Lower of Cost or Market: Inventory Net Realizable Value: net AR Net Book Value: PP&E, Intang. Face: Cash, Current liabilities Fair Market Value (sales price): ST Invt Present Value: LT NR & LTL
Matching Concepts Underlying the accrual accounting concept is the Matching concept. This concept holds that revenues recognized in a particular period should be accompanied by (or matched with) the recognition of expenses related to those revenues costs should follow the revenues. Some costs, such as cost of goods sold or cost of sales, have a direct relation to specific revenues and should be recognized as expenses in the same period as the revenues to which they relate. Other costs, such as rent, depreciation, and some salaries, may not be directly traceable to specific revenues of the period, but they relate indirectly to the period s revenue because they represent costs expired during the period in which revenues are recognized; hence they are an expense of the period. Some costs, such as research and development (R&D), have future expected benefits that cannot be determined objectively, so they are expensed in the period in which they are incurred. Implementing accrual accounting and the matching concept often requires adjusting entries at the end of the period to ensure that the books match all the appropriate revenues and expenses for the period.
The numbers are the numbers.but Schlit s Seven Accounting Shenanigans 1. Recording revenue too soon or of questionable quality. 2. Recording bogus revenue. 3. Boosting income with one-time gains. 4. Shifting current period expenses into a later period or earlier period. 5. Failing to record (or improperly decreasing) liabilities. 6. Shifting current revenue to a later period. 7. Shifting future expenses to the current period through improper accruals or one-time charges. From the Center for Financial Research & Analysis, Inc.
Bottom Line.. Accrual accounting fails to serve its intended purpose of matching revenues and expenses on the income statement and reporting appropriate amounts for accruals and deferrals on the balance sheet unless those responsible (Managers, Accountants, & Auditors) are people of integrity.
ID3-7 Matching and mismatching Much has been written about accounting fraud and subsequent bankruptcy of WorldCom. The Baltimore Sun reported that the Fraud was brazen (and) easy to spot The scheme was not complicated: the company s financial officers recorded routine maintenance expenses totaling $3.9 billion as capital expenditures, which can be written off over decades rather than booked as immediate expenses. a. Explain how capitalizing an item, instead of expensing it, affects the financial statements. b. Which principle of accounting is being violated? Are other principles involved? Discuss.
P3-12 Revenue recognition and net income a. Assuming that Hydra recognizes revenue when the toasters are produced, how much revenue should be recognized in each of the 3 years? b. Assuming Hydra recognizes revenue at delivery, how much revenue should be recognized in each of the 3 years? c. Calculate net income for the 3 periods under each of the two assumptions above. d. If Hydra s management is paid an income-based bonus, which of the two assumptions would be preferred? Hydra sells appliances to Seasons Department Store. A recent order requires Hydra to manufacture and deliver 500 toasters at a price of $100 per unit. Hydra s manufacturing costs are approximately $40 per unit. The following schedule summarizes the production and delivery record of Hydra: Year 1 2 3 Total Toasters produced 200 200 100 500 Costs incurred $8,000 $8,000 $4,000 $20,000 Toasters delivered 150 200 150 500 Cash received $10,000 $15,000 $20,000 $45,000
P3-12
E3-5 Matching and Revenue recognition Cascade Enterprises ordered 4,000 brackets from McKay and Company on 12.1.2011, for a contract price of $40,000. McKay completed manufacturing the brackets on 1.17.12 and delivered them to Cascade on 2.9.12. McKay received a check for $40,000 from Cascade on 3.14.12. a. Assume that McKay and Company prepare monthly income statements. In which month should McKay recognize the $40,000 revenue from the sale? a. Justify your answer in (a.) in terms of the 4 criteria of revenue recognition.
E3-5 Matching and Revenue recognition Cascade Enterprises ordered 4,000 brackets from McKay and Company on 12.1.2011, for a contract price of $40,000. McKay completed manufacturing the brackets on 1.17.12 and delivered them to Cascade on 2.9.12. McKay received a check for $40,000 from Cascade on 3.14.12. c. Are their conditions under which the revenue could be recognized in a different month than the month you chose? d. Provide several reasons McKay s management might be interested in the timing of the recognition of revenue.
Materiality Q: Have you ever wondered why companies Sometimes do not restate for the prior period when a major event occurs, such as an acquisition, that makes current and prior years non-comparable? Can avoid recording losses on the income statement Can capitalize (record as an asset) normal operating expenses Fail to disclose one-time gains or losses as separate line items on the income statement In short ignore the normal accounting conventions. Q: How can you convince your independent auditor to allow your company to circumvent normal accounting conventions? Materiality exception the impact of recording a transaction in a more expedient (although technically improper) way has no significant impact on the investor, normal accounting conventions could be ignored. Thus, prior-period financial statements need not be restated if the change is deemed immaterial; and normal operating expenses could be capitalized if the amount is insignificant. Adapted from: Center for Research and Financial Analysis, Inc.
Materiality Exception Due to the subjectivity in assessing materiality, over time certain quantitative thresholds (rules of thumb) have been used. Some use a 5% overstatement of net income as a threshold for materiality. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) staff point out that exclusive reliance on any percentage or numerical threshold has no basis in accounting literature. In SFAC No. 2 the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) states the essence of materiality is: The omission or misstatement of an item in a financial report is material if, in light of the surrounding circumstances, the magnitude of the item is such that it is probable that the judgment of a reasonable person relying upon the report would have been changed or influenced by the inclusion or correction of the item. The Supreme Court has held that a fact is material if there is: a substantial likelihood that the fact would have been viewed by the reasonable investor as having significantly altered the total mix of information made available.
Interpreting Materiality Rather than relying on a numerical threshold, materiality judgments should be based on all the facts, qualitative and quantitative. The SEC s SAB No. 99 provides certain valuable insights to help investors make material judgments. Among the considerations that may well render material a quantitatively small misstatement of a financial statement item are whether the misstatement: Arises from an item capable of precise measurement or whether it arises from an estimate and, if so, the degree of imprecision inherent in the estimate Masks a change in earnings or other trends Hides a failure to meet analysts consensus expectations for the enterprise Changes a loss into income or visa versa Concerns a segment or other portion of the registrant s business that has been identified as playing a significant role in the registrant s operations or profitability Affects the registrant s compliance with regulatory requirements Affects the registrant s compliance with loan covenants or other contractual requirements Has the effect of increasing management s compensation for example, by satisfying requirements for the award of a bonus or other forms of incentive compensation whether the misstatement involves concealment of an unlawful transaction.
E3-8 The concept of materiality All large U.S. companies have policies in which all expenditures under a certain dollar amount are expensed. Many of these expenditures are for assets, items that are useful to a company beyond the period in which they were purchased. a. Explain the proper accounting treatment for expenditures for items that are expected to generate benefits in the future. b. Explain why it might make economic sense to expense some of these items. Upon what exception to the principles of financial accounting would such a decision be based?
Conservatism Conservatism in measurement and reporting understate assets, overstate liabilities, accelerate losses, and delay gains (due to legal liability)
ID3-10 Income management and conservatism Whitney Tilson, a noted analyst, warns investors in an article in The Motley Fool that more than any other type of company, financial companies have immense discretion regarding what earnings to report. The key is the rate of loan losses that they expect to experience, which must be estimated at the end of every period. By changing the estimate, which in turn changes one of the largest expenses on their income statement, financial companies can manage net income. Tilson specifically cites Farmer Mac, the agency created by the federal government to provide funds in the agricultural lending market, which many analysts believe smooths it earnings across time by simply changing its estimate of loss rates. a. What does it mean to smooth earnings across time? How might a financial company practice this strategy, and why might it engage in this activity? b. Earnings smoothing has also been associated with conservatism. Why?
Red Flags for Detecting Earnings Management Gamesmanship 1. Profits grow faster than cash flow 2. Sales slow while inventories pile up faster 3. Reserves (allowance) for bad debts are cut sharply 4. Ways of calculating revenue and expenses change 5. Unpaid customer bills outpace sales 6. Sales are booked before payments are received 7. Gross margins (Sales-COGS) increase or decrease dramatically 8. Auditors, lawyers, or key executives change From Business Week, The Numbers Game 5/14/01
Techniques for Detecting Accounting Abuses Quantitative Red Flags: Decline in cash flows relative to net income Large sales growth spurts followed by declines Growth in receivables relative to sales Growth in inventories relative to sales and cost of goods sold Sudden changes in gross margin percentages Large increase in soft assets such as prepaid expenses, other current assets, etc. Big decline in deferred revenue
Techniques for Detecting Accounting Abuses Qualitative Red Flags: Change in accounting estimates, principles, or policies Extension of credit terms to major customers Changes in account classification Change in auditors Bill and hold arrangements Insider stock sales Decline in backlog Non-monetary transactions Related-party transactions
Techniques for Detecting Accounting Abuses Monitor Change in Net Accruals on the Balance Sheet: Accrual assets (accounts receivable) Deferral assets (inventories, prepaid expenses) Accrual liabilities (accounts payable, accrued expenses payable) Deferral liabilities (unearned or deferred revenue)
Financial Accounting Fundamentals Assumptions Economic Entity (identified and measured) Fiscal Period (periodicity) Going Concern (life indefinite) Stable Dollar (across time) Measurement Principles Objectivity (Verifiable and documented) Matching and Revenue Recognition (costs & benefits) Consistency (methods same across time) Two Exceptions Materiality little to no effect on user decisions Conservatism -understate assets, overstate liabilities, accelerate losses, and delay gains (due to legal liability) Valuation Input Market (purchase)-original, replacement Output Market (sell)-present, fair market Financial Statements: Original (Historic) Cost: Land, LT Invt Lower of Cost or Market: Inventory Net Realizable Value: net AR Net Book Value: PP&E, Intangibles Face: Cash, Current liabilities Fair Market Value (sales price): ST Invt Present Value: LT NR & LTL IFRS v. US GAAP Principles based Rules based
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