Table of Contents Abbreviations and Citations...xix 1 Introduction...1 Part I Historical Background...5 2 Limitation of Liability and Wilful Misconduct...5 A. Unlimited Liability...6 I. General Principle...6 II. Exceptions...6 B. Limited Liability in Transport Law...7 I. Historical Development...7 1. Carriage by sea...7 a) First appearance...7 b) England...10 2. Carriage by land...11 II. Motives behind the Limitation of Liability...11 1. General...11 a) Protection of an industry...11 b) Joint adventure...14 c) High value cargo...15 d) Insurance...16 aa) Liability insurance...16 (1) Insurance premiums...16 (2) Freight rates...17 bb) Cargo insurance or personal insurance...19 e) Liability regime...20 aa) Balance of different interests...20 bb) Loss prevention...21 f) Unification of law...22 g) Litigation...23 2. Carriage by air...24 C. Wilful Misconduct and Breaking the Limits...25 3 Roots of Wilful Misconduct...27 A. Criminal Liability under Admiralty Law...27
xii Table of Contents I. Merchant Shipping Act, 1894 419... 27 II. Cases and Wilful Fault... 28 1. Cases... 28 a) Bradshaw v. Ewart-James (The N.F. Tiger )... 28 b) Taylor v. O Keefe (The Nordic Clansman )... 29 2. Meaning of the term... 29 B. Private Law... 30 I. Carriage by Rail... 30 1. Cases... 30 a) Glenister v. Great Western Railway Company... 30 b) Lewis v. GWR... 31 c) Haynes v. GWR... 32 d) Gordon v. GWR... 32 e) Forder v. GWR... 33 f) Bastable v. North British Railway Company... 33 2. Meaning... 34 II. Marine Insurance Act, 1906 55 (2)(a)... 35 1. Basic principles... 35 a) Provision... 35 b) Risk-related principles... 36 2. Case law and wilful misconduct... 37 a) Cases... 37 aa) Hull insurance... 37 bb) P&I insurance... 40 b) Meaning... 41 3. Wilful misconduct v. negligence... 42 III. Causation... 43 1. Carriage by rail... 43 2. Marine insurance... 44 IV. Burden and Standard of Proof... 45 1. Burden of proof... 45 a) Carriage by rail... 45 b) Marine insurance... 46 2. Standard of proof... 47 Part II Wilful Misconduct in Transport Law... 49 4 First Time in an International Transport Convention: Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules relating to International Carriage by Air, 1929... 49 A. Article 25... 49 I. Historical Background... 49 1. Degree of fault... 51 2. English version... 52 3. Outcome... 53 4. Result... 53
Table of Contents xiii 5. Inaccurate translation...56 II. Article 25 in Practice...57 1. Approach by civil law...58 a) Carriage of passengers...59 b) Carriage of cargo...60 2. Approach by common law...62 a) Carriage of passengers...69 aa) Passengers...69 bb) Luggage...73 b) Carriage of cargo...74 3. Result...76 B. The Hague Protocol, 1955...78 I. Modification of Article 25...78 1. Reason for modification...78 2. New wording...79 a) Legislative history...79 b) Comments on the new wording...82 c) Components...84 aa) Intent to cause damage...84 bb) Act or omission done recklessly and with knowledge that damage would probably result...86 (1) Recklessness...86 (a) Degree of fault...86 (b) Aviation context...87 (2) Knowledge...90 (a) Knowledge as to the consequences...90 (b) Knowledge as to the probability...92 (c) Damage...94 cc) Result...96 II. Cases on Article 25 as amended by the Hague Protocol...97 1. Civil law...97 a) Carriage of passengers...98 aa) Passengers...98 bb) Luggage...99 b) Carriage of cargo...100 c) Assessment...104 2. Common law...104 a) Carriage of passengers...105 b) Carriage of cargo...106 c) Assessment...108 3. Result...108 C. The Present Regime...109 I. Liability and the Limitation of Liability...110 II. Loss of the Right to Limit...110 D. Servants and Agents...111
xiv Table of Contents I. Liability... 111 1. Vicarious liability... 111 2. Criterion... 112 3. Limitation of liability and breaking the limits... 114 II. Scope of Employment... 116 1. Term... 116 2. Theft... 117 5 Carriage by Sea... 119 A. Carriage of Goods and Passengers... 119 I. Carriage of Goods... 119 1. Hague Rules as amended by the Visby Protocol... 119 a) Hague Rules and limitation of liability... 119 b) Visby Protocol and breaking the limits... 121 aa) Historical background... 121 bb) Similarities and differences in the wording... 122 (1) The carrier...124 (2) Damage...127 c) Particulars... 128 aa) Geographical deviation... 129 bb) Carriage on deck... 130 cc) Unseaworthiness... 131 d) Actual fault or privity... 134 e) Inadequate organisational structure (Organisationsverschulden)... 135 2. Hamburg Rules... 138 a) Liability and limitation of liability... 139 b) Loss of the right to limit... 140 aa) Historical background... 140 bb) Differences in the wording... 142 (1) Carrier and actual carrier...142 (2) Loss, damage or delay...143 (3) Carriage on deck...144 3. Rotterdam Rules... 145 a) General remarks on the liability regime... 146 b) Loss of the right to limit... 147 II. Carriage of Passengers Athens Convention... 150 1. Liability and limitation... 151 2. Loss of the right to limit... 151 a) Link between Art. 3 and Art. 13... 151 b) Carrier and performing carrier... 153 c) Damage... 155 B. Pollution Conventions... 155 I. Strict Liability... 156 II. Right to Limit Liability... 157 III. Loss of the Right to Limit... 158
Table of Contents xv 1. CLC and HNS...158 2. Bunker Convention...159 C. Global Limitation...160 I. Main Features...160 II. Breaking the Limits...162 1. 1957 Brussels Convention...162 2. 1976 London Convention...165 a) Preliminary...165 b) Loss of the right to limit...166 aa) Historical background...166 bb) Almost unbreakable limits...167 (1) Personal fault...170 (2) Such loss...172 D. Persons...175 I. Owner...175 1. Registered owner...175 2. Disponent owner...175 II. Manager or Operator...176 III. Charterer...177 1. Voyage charterer...179 2. Time charterer...179 3. Slot charterer...179 IV. Carrier...180 1. Contractual carrier...180 2. Actual or performing carrier...181 a) Definitions...181 b) Bill of lading contract?...183 c) Identity of carrier and demise clauses...185 V. Salvor...187 VI. Servant and Agent...188 1. Vicarious liability...189 2. Personal liability and limitation...189 a) Hague Rules...189 b) Other conventions...191 3. Loss of the right to limit...193 a) Principle...193 b) Theft and scope of employment...196 c) Breaking the channelling...197 VII. Liability Insurer...197 E. Corporate Liability and Attribution...200 I. Attribution...202 1. Company s bodies...202 2. The identification doctrine...205 a) The doctrine...205 b) The Meridian rule...209 c) Examples from carriage by sea...210
xvi Table of Contents d) Result... 213 II. ISM Code... 215 1. The code... 215 2. Impacts... 216 a) Generally... 216 b) On the attribution... 216 6 Conventions on Other Means of Transportation... 220 A. Conventions... 220 I. Carriage by Road... 220 II. Carriage by Rail... 222 III. Carriage by Inland Waterways... 223 IV. Multimodal Transport... 225 B. Loss of the Right to Limit... 226 I. Carrier... 226 1. Wilful misconduct or equivalent fault... 226 a) Scope of application... 226 aa) General... 226 bb) Time limitation... 229 b) Approach by civil law... 230 aa) Interpretation... 230 bb) Examples... 233 c) Approach by common law... 234 2. Wilful misconduct or gross negligence... 236 3. Definition of wilful misconduct... 236 a) COTIF 1999... 236 b) CMNI... 239 c) CLNI... 240 d) Multimodal Transport Convention... 240 II. Servant or Agent... 241 1. Definition and vicarious liability... 241 2. Right to limit... 241 3. Loss of the right to limit... 242 Part III Proof & Concept of Fault... 245 7 Causation and Proof... 245 A. Causal Connection... 245 I. Connection... 245 II. Condition sine qua non... 246 III. Proximate Cause... 247 IV. Intervening and Concurrent Causes... 248 B. Proof... 251 I. Burden... 251 1. Wording of the conventions... 251 2. Proof of criteria... 254
Table of Contents xvii II. Standard...255 1. General rule...255 2. Specific principles...260 a) Procedural cooperation duty...260 b) Res ipsa loquitur...265 III. Result...266 8 Degrees of Fault and Wilful Misconduct...269 A. Wilful Misconduct under Common Law...269 I. Intention...270 1. Direct (purposive) intention...270 2. Oblique intention...271 II. Recklessness...272 1. Subjective (advertent) recklessness...272 2. Objective (inadvertent) recklessness...273 III. Negligence...273 1. Definition...273 2. Degrees of negligence...274 3. Negligence and wilful misconduct...275 B. Wilful Misconduct under Civil Law...275 I. Negligence (culpa, Fahrlässigkeit, ihmal)...276 1. Slight negligence (culpa levis, einfache Fahrlässigkeit, hafif ihmal)...277 2. Gross negligence (culpa lata, grobe Fahrlässigkeit, a r ihmal)...277 a) Definition...277 b) Gross negligence and wilful misconduct...278 c) Advertent and inadvertent gross negligence...278 aa) Inadvertent gross negligence...279 bb) Advertent gross negligence...279 3. Leichtfertigkeit...281 II. Intentional Wrongdoing (dolus, Vorsatz, kas t)...282 1. Direct intention (dolus directus, Absicht/direkter Vorsatz, do rudan kas t)...283 2. Dolus eventualis (bedingter Vorsatz, dolayl kas t)...285 a) Definition...285 b) Difference from other fault concepts...285 c) Wilful misconduct a degree of fault between dolus eventualis and advertent (gross) negligence?...286 d) Dolus eventualis and wilful misconduct...287 aa) Argument against...287 bb) Argument in favour...288 cc) Result...288 9 Conclusion...291 Bibliography...295
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