Policies and practices regarding the articulation of professional, family and personal life in Norway an analysis adopting a time use approach Ragni Hege Kitterød Institute for Social Research, Norway hege.kitterod@samfunnsforskning.no Lisboa 28.06.2016
The Norwegian context: Labour market All adults expected to participate in the labour market Standard weekly work hours: 37.5 hours More women than men in higher education High female labour force participation, few full time housewives Women often work part-time (37 %) Gender segregation, horizontally - Women dominate in the public sector, in education, health and social work - Men dominate in the private sector, manufacturing and finance Gender segregation vertically - Women underrepresented in management positions A gender wage gap Compressed wage structure 2
The Norwegian context: Work-family policies Aims A dual-earner/dual-carer family model Facilitate mothers employment More active fathering practices Beneficial for fathers and children Encourage women s labour force participation Choice and flexibility Measures Affordable and high-quality publicly subsidised childcare A generous parental leave scheme, including a father s quota A cash-for-childcare scheme Right to reduced work hours for welfare reasons A commission to study male roles appointed in 1986. Headed by Jens Stoltenberg (Secretary General of NATO) A woman friendly welfare state? A father friendly welfare state? 3
100 % In your opinion, which family model is the best one? 90 % 80 % 70 % 60 % 50 % 40 % 30 % 20 % 10 % 0 % 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 Gender equal Her jobb less demanding Male breadwinner Don't know Gender equal: Both partners have equally demanding jobs and share housework and childcare equally between them. Gender equal light: Her job is less demanding than his, she has the main responsibility for housework and childcare. Male breadwinner: Only he has paid work, she is responsible for housework and childcare. Source: Ipsos Public Affairs
Employment and labour force participation among women and men 25-54 years. 100 90 80 70 60 % 50 40 30 20 10 0 Labour force, men Employed, men Labour force, women Employed, women Source: Labour Force Survey, Statistics Norway
Contractual work hours among employed men and women in different age groups, 2015 (percent) Men Women 15-19 years 20-24 years 25-29 years 30-34 years 35-39 years 40-44 years 45-49 years 50-54 years 55-59 years 60-64 years 65-66 years 0 % 20 % 40 % 60 % 80 % 100 % 15-19 years 20-24 years 25-29 years 30-34 years 35-39 years 40-44 years 45-49 years 50-54 years 55-59 years 60-64 years 65-66 years 0 % 20 % 40 % 60 % 80 % 100 % Part time, short Part time, long Full time - 39 hours Full time 40-44 hours Full time 45 hours + Part time, short Part time, long Full time - 39 hours Full time 40-44 hours Full time 45 hours + Source: Labour Force Survey, Statistics Norway
Contractual work hours among men and women 25-54 years. 100 % Men Women 90 % 80 % 70 % 60 % 50 % 40 % 30 % 20 % 10 % 0 % Source: Labour Force Survey, Statistics Norway
Students in tertiary education in Norway by sex and field of education, 2015 Health, welfare and sport Education Social sciences and law Humanities and arts Business and administration Primary industries Natural sciences, vocational and technical Transport and communications, safety etc. General programmes Unspecified field of study All 0 % 10 % 20 % 30 % 40 % 50 % 60 % 70 % 80 % 90 % 100 % Men Women Source: Adult education, Statistics Norway
Employed men and women by occupation, 2015 (percent.) Men Women Mangers 9 6 Professionals 21 33 Technicians and associate professionals 19 15 Clerical support workers 4 8 Service and sales workers 12 30 Agricultural. Forestry and fishery workers 3 1 Craft and related trade workers 17 1 Plant and machine operators and assemblers 11 2 Other occupations 5 6 Source: Labour Force Survey, Statistics Norway
Gender wage gap: Monthly wages, women and men. Full-time equivalents, 2015 (NOK). ALL EDUCATION Primary education Upper secondary University, undergraduate University, graduate SECTOR Private Public, health enterprise Public, municipalities Public, central government 0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 Women Men Source: Wage statistics, Statistics Norway
Percentage of women and men in boards and executive committees in the 100 largest companies in Norway, 2015. BOARDS EXECUTIVE COMMITTEES Total Cief Executive Officers Line positions Staff positions 0 % 10 % 20 % 30 % 40 % 50 % 60 % 70 % 80 % 90 % 100 % Women Men Source: Norwegian Gender Balance Scoregard
Labour force participation among married/cohabiting mothers with children in different age groups. 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Source: Labour Force Survey, Statistics Norway
Percentage of children in kindergarten in different age groups 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 5 years 4 years 3 years 2 years 1 year 0 years 20 10 0 19771979198119831985198719891991199319951997199920012003200520072009201120132015 Source: Children in kindergarten, Statistics Norway
1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Labour force participation among married/cohabiting mothers and kindergarten attendance among young children. 100 90 80 70 % 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Labour force, children 0-2 Labour force, children 3-6 Kindergarten 1-2 Kindergarten 3-5 Source: Labour Force Survey and Children in kindergarten, Statistics Norway
Parental leave in Norway, maximum number of weeks (80% wage compensation) 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Mother, before delivery Mother, after delivery Common, can be shared Father
The cash-for childcare benefit in Norway 1998-2014 Year Age of eligible children (months) Benefit per month (No day care) 01.08.1998 13-24 months 3 000 NOK 01.01.1999 13-36 months 2 263 NOK 01.08.1999 13-36 months 2 263 NOK 01.01.2000 13-36 months 3 000 NOK 01.08.2003 13-36 months 3 657 NOK 01.01.2006 13-35 months 3 303 NOK 01.08.2012 13-18 months 5 500 NOK 01.08.2012 19-23 months 3 303 NOK 01.08.2014 13-23 months 6 000 NOK
Five time use surveys conducted by Statistics Norway: 1971-72 1980-81 1990-91 2000-01 2010-11 Diaries and interviews Samples of individuals, not couples or households Each participant keep a diary for two consecutive days The days spread evenly throughout the year Activities coded by a professional team
Data: Time-use surveys based on diaries 18
Some characteristics of the Norwegian time use surveys 1971-72 1980-81 1990-91 2000-01 2010-11 Age group 15-74 16-74 16-79 9-79 9-79 Net sample, days 7,075 6,600 6,174 6,801 7,932 Response rate, % 58 65 64 50 48 Time intervals, diary 15 minutes 15 minutes 15 minutes 10 minutes 10 minutes Number of days, diary 2/3 2 2 2 2 Interviews 2, visits 2, visits 2, visits 2 (visit/ telephone) CAPTURED IN THE DIARY Main activity X X X X X Secondary activity X X (only day 2) X X Where/travelling X X X X X Time with other people X X X X Time alone X X X Time in local community X X Looking after children/ill X 1,telephone
Five main activity categories: Paid work (including travelling time) Unpaid work Education Personal activities (sleep, meals, personal care) Leisure Other Unpaid work: Core housework (food preparation, dish washing, housecleaning, washing clothes) Active childcare (caring for children, help with home work, playing with children, escorting them) Maintenance work (remodelling, construction, care of garden and property, care of pets) Purchase of goods and services (purchase of grocery and goods, medical treatment, visit to public offices) Other (purchase of grocery and goods, medical treatment, visit to public offices) 20
Time spent on various activities among men and women 16-74 years (average per day). 100 % 90 % 80 % Men Women 70 % 60 % 50 % 40 % 30 % 20 % Other Leisure Personal Education Unpaid work Paid work 10 % 0 % 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Source: Time Use Surveys, Statistics Norway
Time spent on unpaid work among men and women in different age groups (average per day, minutes). Men Women 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Source: Time Use Surveys, Statistics Norway
Time spent on paid work and family work among fathers and mothers with children 0-14 years. 1971-2010 (average per day, minutes). Fathers Mothers 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Source: Time Use Surveys, Statistics Norway
Time spent on various types of household work among married/cohabiting fathers and mothers with children 0-14 years (average per day, minutes). Fathers Mothers 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 1971 1980 1990 2000 2010 1971 1980 1990 2000 2010 Source: Time Use Surveys, Statistics Norway 24
Core housework among fathers and mothers with children 0-14 years of age. Average time spent by all, percentage who performed the activity, and average time spent by those who performed the activity (hours and minutes). Average, Fathers Mothers 1971 1980 1990 2000 2010 1971 1980 1990 2000 2010 all 0.35 0.44 0.44 0.55 1.04 5.00 3.29 2.42 2.07 2.03 Percentage performers 51 63 79 81 83 99 99 98 97 97 Average, performers 1.08 1.09 1.03 1.08 1.18 5.03 3.32 2.46 2.11 2.07 Source: Time Use Surveys, Statistics Norway 25
Time spent on paid and unpaid work work among married/cohabiting fathers and mothers with children in different age groups (average per day, hours and minutes). Fathers Mothers 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Children 0-2 years Paid work 6.19 5.26 5.32 5.11 4.35 0.36 1.14 1.25 1.49 2.08 Unpaid work 2.48 3.00 3.41 3.45 4.37 8.25 7.38 7.04 6.50 6.51 Children 3-6 years Paid work 6.12 5.23 5.59 6.03 4.57 1.13 1.37 2.23 3.36 4.16 Unpaid work 2.23 3.11 3.08 3.28 4.24 7.15 6.19 6.06 5.03 5.03 Children 7-14 years Paid work 6.11 6.18 5.25 5.25 6.02 1.56 2.42 3.25 4.07 4.02 Unpaid work 2.24 2.33 2.42 2.58 2.49 6.46 5.25 5.00 4.12 4.24 Source: Time Use Surveys, Statistics Norway
Time spent on paid and unpaid work work among married/cohabiting fathers and mothers with children 0-14 years on weekdays and weekends (average per day, hours and minutes). Fathers Mothers 1980 1990 2000 2010 1980 1990 2000 2010 Weekdays Paid work 7.34 7.21 7.38 7.00 2.31 3.12 3.58 4.30 Unpaid work 2.35 2.54 2.53 3.31 6.28 6.02 5.14 5.08 Weekends Paid work 1.26 1.44 1.22 1.07 0.46 0.40 1.12 0.59 Unpaid work 3.32 3.45 4.19 4.36 5.29 5.41 5.08 5.45 Source: Time Use Surveys, Statistics Norway
Does the presence of small children impact men s time use? Results from OLS-regressions of time spent on paid work. Fathers and mothers with children 0-19 years, (minutes per day). Fathers Mothers 1980 1990 2000 2010 1980 1990 2000 2010 Age of youngest child 0-1 years -28.4-23.8 22.2-93.6-150.0-175.2-181.1-149.7 2-3 years 15.7 35.8 13.9-28.5-100.9-153.3-98.8-31.2 4-5 years -7.1 20.7 18.9-34.9-78.7-117.9-29.0 1.3 6-12 years 26.1 12.3 16.6 0.0-46.7-86.1 29.1-2.9 Ref. 13-19 years Controls: Number of children, age of youngest child, day of week. Red=statistically significant at 0.05-level Source: Time Use Surveys, Statistics Norway 28
Results from OLS-regressions of time spent on unpaid work. Fathers and mothers with children 0-19 years, (minutes per day). Fathers Mothers 1980 1990 2000 2010 1980 1990 2000 2010 Age of youngest child 0-1 years 31.6 76.0 49.4 108.8 220.0 167.8 182.8 184.0 2-3 years 34.8 42.3 24.2 96.3 102.0 129.0 84.3 87.9 4-5 years 40.3 35.6 31.5 82.6 65.0 79.0 42.2 33.8 6-12 years 12.9 3.2-7.2 1.2 41.1 34.4 2.7-4.8 Ref. 13-19 years Controls: Number of children, age of youngest child, day of week. Red=statistically significant at 0.05-level. Source: Time Use Surveys, Statistics Norway 29
Does full-time work entail a double burden for mothers? Total workload among parents with children in different age groups (average per day, hours and minutes). Children 0-6 years Children 7-19 years Fathers Mothers Fathers Mothers Paid work 4.49 3.32 5.45 4.12 Unpaid work 4.29 5.40 2.53 4.09 Education 0.08 0.11 0.02 0.05 Total workload 1 (paid work, unpaid work, education) 9.27 9.23 8.40 8.26 Total workload 2 (total workload 1 + secondary activities) 9.34 9.41 8.44 8.34 Total workload 3 (total workload 1 + time with children) 11.57 12.09 9.36 9.26 N (days) 348 468 621 619 Source: Time Use Surveys, Statistics Norway
Results from OLS regressions of the effect of gender on total workload (minutes per day). (Reference: Mothers) Children 0-6 years Both full time He full time, she part time He full time, she not employed Other Total workload 1 2.60-6.30 62.79-28.94 Total workload 2-4.30-20.52 60.72-41.37 Total workload 3-11.68-24.21 33.49-55.11 Children 7-19 years Total workload 1-13.30 63.70 119.46-92,50 Total workload 2-18.96 58.84 114.16-94.00 Total workload 3-29.17 81.08 53.43-67.94 N (days) 0-6 years 435 256 97 108 N (days) 7-19 years 650 378 100 112 Controls: Number of children, age of youngest child, day of week. Red=statistically significant at 0.05-level Source: Time Use Surveys, Statistics Norway
A typology of dual-earner couples in Norway Neo-traditional (24%) She works part time He works full time, often long hours She is main responsible for housework and childcare He is responsible for maintenance work Gender-Equal Light (35%) She works part time or full time (not long hours) He works full time, often long hours She is main responsible for housework, childcare shared equally He is responsible for maintenance work Generalized Gender Equal (24%) Both partners work full time, seldom long hours Housework and childcare shared almost equally, no specialization of tasks He is responsible for maintenance work Specialized Gender Equal (18%) She works full time, sometimes long hours He works full time, sometimes long hours Housework and childcare shared almost equally, the partners specialize in different tasks He is responsible for the maintenance work Source: Norwegian Generations and Gender survey 2007. Multinomial latent class model. Kitterød, R. H. and Lappegård, T (2012): Family Relations 61: 671-685. 32
Gender equality in Norway: Challenges for the future In spite of high female employment rates, women still spend less time in the labour market and more time on family work than men. Low employment rates among some groups of immigrant women. Gender segregated labour market and educational choices Women underrepresented in corporate management positions. The welfare state paradox? Women more often than men withdraw from high-commitment careers when children arrive. The arrival of children still impacts women s wages more than men s. Many couples share paid and unpaid equally. Still, in 50 percent of the couples, the male partner spends most time in the labour market. The reverse pattern is rare. Still gender-equality light in Norway?