A New Umbrella Trust Fund for GFDRR A Multi-Donor Trust Fund for Mainstreaming Disaster and Climate Risk Management in Developing Countries
2 MANAGING DISASTER RISKS FOR A RESILIENT FUTURE Introduction 3 Description 5 Objective 5 Main Activities and Expected Results 5 Activity Organization 6 End-disbursement Date 8 Implementation arrangements 9 Strategy, Work Plan, Resource Allocation, and Monitoring & Evaluation System 9 Donor Contributions 10 Consultative Group (CG) 10 Reporting, evaluation, & communications 11 Reporting, Audit, and Evaluation 11 Communications and Visibility 11 Annexes Annex 1: Indicative List of Activity Indicators 12 Annex 2: Strategy and Program Logic of GFDRR 14 Annex 3: Results Framework of GFDRR 16
GLOBAL FACILITY FOR DISASTER REDUCTION AND RECOVERY - A NEW Umbrella Trust Fund 3 introduction This concept note outlines the context, objectives, and structure for the creation of a new programmatic multi-donor trust fund (MDTF). Drawing on the World Bank s ongoing trust fund reforms, the new MDTF will consolidate the majority of donor contributions into one broad harmonized structure towards the programmatic agenda set out in GFDRR s 2013-2015 Strategy, multi-year Work Plan, and Results Framework. 1 The proposed MDTF will be managed by the World Bank. 1 For more information on GFDRR s previous work and portfolio, please see GFDRR s Annual Report 2013 (www.gfdrr.org/ Annual_Report_2013) and GFDRR s Program Monitoring Report (November 2013) (www.gfdrr.org/ sites/gfdrr.org/ files/documents/ Program%20 Monitoring%20Report_ fin2.pdf) GFDRR is a growing partnership of 41 countries and 8 international organizations housed in the World Bank. Since its inception in 2006, GFDRR s mission has been to protect lives and livelihoods by: (i) expanding and strengthening global and regional partnerships to coordinate and scale up support for national disaster risk management (DRM) and climate change adaptation; (ii) contributing towards mainstreaming disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation as key elements of sustainable development; and (iii) assisting post-disaster countries in achieving efficient, effective, and resilient disaster recovery. GFDRR carries out a range of activities to achieve its mission, structured around five pillars of action: (1) risk identification; (2) risk reduction; (3) preparedness; (4) financial protection; and (5) resilient recovery. GFDRR supports countries to develop capacity, generate new knowledge, and apply these to implement reform and investment for DRM and climate risk management. GFDRR activities are implemented through the World Bank and grant recipient institutions which meet specified criteria. This enables GFDRR to draw upon a wide range of sectorspecific expertise, and have an extensive geographic and operational presence in more than 70 developing countries. In FY13, the grants provided by GFDRR have leveraged more than US$3.8 billion in investments funded by the International Development Agency (IDA), the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), the International Finance Corporation
4 MANAGING DISASTER RISKS FOR A RESILIENT FUTURE (IFC), and various trust-funded mechanisms linked to climate adaptation and disaster risk management such as the Global Environmental Facility (GEF) and the Pilot Program for Climate Resilience (PPCR). Over the next three years, GFDRR intends to continue to invest in disaster and climate risk management activities that will influence and leverage a minimum of US$10 billion by 2016. The creation of a new MDTF is important and timely to achieve the targets outlined above. Most of GFDRR s nine trust funds are currently scheduled to close between mid-2015 and end-2016, providing donors with an opportunity to consider improvements to the overall GDFRR trust fund structure. After seven years of operations, the partnership has gained valuable experience with regard to its trust fund architecture and learned how to improve its overall capacity to identify funding activities, accommodate fluctuations in demand, and develop longer-term engagements with priority countries. 2 Additionally, the World Bank is currently undertaking a reform of trust fund management. A number of the features of this reform are especially relevant to the proposed MDTF, such as strategically reducing fragmentation of the trust fund portfolio, continually ensuring trust funds respond to country development objectives and are integrated into the country programs, and increasing medium-term predictability of resources to clients. As part of the new trust fund architecture, it is worth noting that GFDRR would continue to accept callable funds under a separate MDTF, which have proven valuable to support recovery and reconstruction. The creation of single-donor trust funds would be limited to exceptional circumstances large scale contributions to special programs that otherwise could not be accommodated within the MDTF due to given donor policies. 3 All trust funds would support the Strategy and Work Plan approved by the CG, use the common results framework, and operate under the usual GFDRR administrative arrangements. Figure 1. GFDRR Five Pillars of Action PILLAR 2 PILLAR 3 PILLAR 4 PILLAR 5 Risk reduction Avoided creation of new risks and reduced risks in society through greater disaster and climate risk consideration in policy and investment Preparedness Improved capacity to manage crises through developing forecasting, earlyi warning, and contingency plans Financial Protection Increased financial resilience of governments, private sector, and households through financial protection strategies Resilient Recovery Quicker, more resilient recovery through support for reconstruction planning 2 Since its creation in 2006, GFDRR s prioritization of resources has maintained a demanddriven approach based on strategic objectives and the application of grant allocation criteria. Each year a designated list of low- and middleincome countries is approved to receive GFDRR assistance under a three-year implementation cycle. Selection of these countries is based on procedures approved by the CG. Priority country selection will continue to be in line with GFDRR s Charter and benefit from this demanddriven and resultsfocused approach, incorporating valuable input from operational teams and donors. 3 Currently, GFDRR manages two SDTFs: (1) the African, Caribbean and Pacific Group-EU (ACP-EU) Program SDTF created in 2012 with planned closing in 2017; and (2) the Japan Mainstreaming DRM Program SDTF created in 2014 with planned end-disbursement date in 2018. PILLAR 1 Risk identification Improved identification and understanding of disaster and climate risks through building capacity for assessments and analysis
GLOBAL FACILITY FOR DISASTER REDUCTION AND RECOVERY - A NEW Umbrella Trust Fund 5 description Objective The proposed MDTF will support selected developing countries in mainstreaming disaster and climate risk management into national and local development planning and investment programs; and help disaster-affected countries improve the quality and timeliness of their recovery and reconstruction. The purpose of the new MDTF is to provide an effective vehicle to align donor funding and their interests with client demand and thematic priorities in line with a pre-approved strategic framework and work plan. Main Activities and Expected Results GFDRR s Strategy and work plan will guide resource allocation on an annual basis. The Secretariat will propose a list of priority countries in the Work Plan to be approved by the CG to ensure that the Secretariat remains responsive to changing conditions and demand. Allocation for post-disaster assistance would be made on a needs basis. Table 1 presents an indicative set of eligible activities by Action Pillar. The indicative activities under each Action Pillar fall under GFDRR s three activity types: Capacity Building, Analytical Products, and Technical Assistance. A tentative list of results is set out in the Annexes attached. Annex 1 provides an indicative list of indicators by pillar and activity typology. Annex 2 provides the strategy and program logic. Annex 3 provides the results framework.
6 MANAGING DISASTER RISKS FOR A RESILIENT FUTURE Table 1. Indicative Eligible Activities within GFDRR s Strategy Action Pillar Expected Result Indicative Activities Risk Identification Improved identification and Risk information understanding of risks production Communication of risk information Use of risk information Risk Reduction Preparedness Financial Protection Resilient Recovery Avoided creation of new risks and reduced existing risks in society Improved warning and management of disasters at national, local, and community level Increased financial resilience of governments and the private sector Quicker, more resilient recovery from disasters Land-use planning Building standards Institutional strengthening Design of national/subnational action plans Preparatory work and feasibility studies for risk reduction investments Forecasting and service delivery Early warning systems Contingency planning Sovereign disaster risk financing Risk retention and transfer strategies Post-disaster assessments Recovery frameworks Activity Organization The activities to be funded by the proposed MDTF will be organized by programs as follows (see Figure 2): (i) The DRM Program encompassing activities to support GFDRR s Pillars 1-4 for ex-ante risk identification, risk reduction, preparedness, and financial protection; (ii) The Resilient Recovery Program encompassing activities to support GFDRR s Pillar 5 for the development of an integrated approach to disaster recovery; (iii) The Thematic Initiatives encompassing individual, cross-cutting activities across Pillars 1-5 that, in line with GFDRR s strategic priorities, demonstrate exceptionality in the following areas: Working Development Partnerships: Thematic Initiatives would have strong working relationships with the United Nations (UN) and other international agencies, various technical areas in the World Bank Group, civil society organizations, and expert private sector actors that allow them to uniquely access and contribute to
GLOBAL FACILITY FOR DISASTER REDUCTION AND RECOVERY - A NEW UMBRELLA TRUST FUND 7 knowledge, international policymaking, and development scalability. Institutional Arrangements and Local Partnerships: Thematic Initiatives would also ensure engagement with appropriate country partners, demonstrating the strategic importance of their institutional arrangements, as well as connections with local civil society and the private sector, as applicable. Technical Skill Sets: Thematic Initiatives would rely on unique specialized skill sets, such as in the scientific disciplines of seismology and hydrometeorology, information technology related to GIS and data sharing in community mapping, urban development and management, and financial risk modeling. Leverage and Results Capacity: Drawing on the above characteristics and resources, Thematic Initiatives would highlight their capacity for achieving development results and wider action through leveraging larger-scale investment and policy reforms with a range of development and country partners. Thematic Initiatives will also set targets that contribute to GFDRR s results framework and report on their progress through the monitoring and evaluation system. Examples of such thematic cross-cutting initiatives include: GFDRR Labs: GFDRR Labs promotes and supports the use of science, technology and innovation to empower decision makers to understand and act on disaster risks. Partnering with governments, international organizations, and civil society groups, this thematic initiative includes open systems and tools for creating, sharing, communicating and using disaster risk and climate change information before and after disasters. Hydromet: GFDRR Hydromet, launched jointly with the World Bank in 2011, works closely with the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) to help developing countries modernize their weather, climate, and hydrological information systems. Disaster Risk Financing and Insurance (DRFI): GFDRR DRFI brings together finance ministries with line ministries and agencies, such as public works and civil protection, to find solutions to improve countries overall financial resilience to disasters. Safer Schools: Safer Schools, a proposed joint thematic initiative by GFDRR and donor partners, in close cooperation with UNISDR, UNICEF and others, aims to deliver solutions to protect children, teachers and local communities. The initiative is currently being designed as a global knowledge, advisory and technical assistance program to develop and implement a comprehensive school safety program. Resilient Cities: GFDRR and the Urban Unit in the World Bank are currently working together to strengthen cooperation through a the Resilient Cities initiative, which will engage city administrations on improving their resilience to risks and shocks through such measures as land use and urban planning, community awareness, and preparedness. Resilience to Climate Change: This initiative will respond to country demand for technical assistance to help them formulate enabling policies and investment programs for integrating climate and disas-
8 MANAGING DISASTER RISKS FOR A RESILIENT FUTURE ter risk into their development strategies. It focuses specifically on adaptation to climate change and management of the residual risk of climate-related disasters, in support of the international climate change Loss and Damage agenda. Figure 2. Proposed MDTF Structure Programs DRM Program (Pillars 1-4) Resilient Recovery Program (Pillar 5) GFDRR Labs Resilience to Climate Change Thematic Initiatives Hydromet Disaster Risk Financing and Insurance Safer Schools Resilient Cities Additional initiatives that meet GFDRR s Strategic Criteria End-disbursement Date The end-disbursement date of the trust fund will be seven years from its initiation.
GLOBAL FACILITY FOR DISASTER REDUCTION AND RECOVERY - A NEW UMBRELLA TRUST FUND 9 implementation arrangements Strategy, Work Plan, Resource Allocation, and M&E System GFDRR is moving towards a more structured work planning cycle (the Work Plan). The Work Plan will be the mechanism for outlining GFDRR s strategic planning and resource allocation for the forthcoming three fiscal years. It will be updated annually to reflect current status of deliverables and resources, as well as changes in strategic focus, and will be approved by the CG annually. The Work Plan will show expected results based on GFDRR s priority country list, results framework and M&E system, distinguishing between the DRM, Resilient Recovery, and Thematic Initiatives. The Work Plan will be developed by the GFDRR Secretariat, including relevant Regional and Thematic Coordinators, reflecting country demand with indication of priority disaster and climate risk management areas, and an outline highlighting the types of projects that are envisaged, and relation to GFDRR s results framework. Upon approval of the Work Plan by the CG, MDTF resources will be allocated by the Secretariat through a system of indicative annual block grant (ABG) allocations. The ABG will be made to World Bank teams at the start of the fiscal year (July 1), which they will then manage in the context of GFDRR s strategic priorities as outlined in the Work Plan and consistent with the trust fund s objectives and results framework. In line with the Work Plan, task teams will develop project proposals, including respective project costs. The GFDRR Secretariat will screen these proposals to ensure strategic alignment and consistency with the Work Plan, eligibility criteria, ABG allocation, and quality assurance, and will provide clearance. All activities funded under the MDTF, including grant processing
10 MANAGING DISASTER RISKS FOR A RESILIENT FUTURE and project supervision, will be governed by standard World Bank policies and procedures. The MDTF will be global in its scope. World Bank-executed and recipient-executed activities will be eligible under the MDTF. The GFDRR Secretariat will work closely with the World Bank and GFDRR teams in the implementation of activities under the MDTF. To the maximum extent possible, implementation would be carried out in partnership with regional and national organizations. Donor Contributions The MDTF will be established by the World Bank and managed by the GFDRR Secretariat. An Administration Agreement (AA) will be signed between CG Member countries and the World Bank in conformity with OP/BP 14.40. Donor contributions to the MDTF would be made as follows: (i) (ii) Contributions to the MDTF will count toward the minimum requirements for CG membership, as defined by GFDRR s Partnership Charter. Donors may make additional contributions to the MDTF above the established minimums. Exceptionally, donors may indicate preference for particular programs and initiatives, with the understanding that the Bank will not be in a position to guarantee that a contribution will be used for such purpose and that the Bank will not have any obligation to the donor if such preference cannot be achieved. Through their participation in the CG, donors can influence decisions on work plans so that their respective preferences may be taken into account. Consultative Group (CG) The CG will approve (i) the Work Plan; (ii) the annual report; and (iii) proposals for changes in the list of selected priority countries and any modifications to the results framework.
GLOBAL FACILITY FOR DISASTER REDUCTION AND RECOVERY - A NEW Umbrella Trust Fund 11 reporting, evaluation, & communications Reporting, Audit, and Evaluation The GFDRR M&E system will be applicable for monitoring the program, including the achievement of the expected results, intermediate outcomes, and outputs laid out in the CG-approved Work Plan. Activities funded under the MDTF will be reported to the CG through Annual Reports. The MDTF will be subject to the Single Audit mechanism of the World Bank. Communications and Visibility All contracts or grant agreements entered into by the World Bank in relation to activities financed under the MDTF including all publications, training programs, seminars or symposia, and all press releases or other information materials issued by the World Bank shall clearly indicate that the activities are being funded by the GFDRR MDTF.
12 MANAGING DISASTER RISKS FOR A RESILIENT FUTURE Annex! 1: Indicative List of Activity Indicators Pillar Activity Type Indicative Indicator Risk Identification Capacity building #/type/quality of training delivered in data collection (e.g. competencies, certification, participant evaluation) # hazard and exposure modeling/mapping support provided (e.g. capacity building in creation of model and maps by type and quality) Analytical products #/type risk assessment tools developed (e.g. specifications of tools) # open source software developed (e.g. names and types) # data platforms established (e.g. standard features of Platforms) Technical Assistance # countries/projects provided TA in risk assessment and risk information (assistance defined, client defined) # risk assessments undertaken (e.g. qualitative features of a standardized risk assessment, who prepares, potential users involved) Risk Reduction Capacity building #/type/quality of training delivered in land use planning (e.g. competencies, certification, participant evaluation) #/type/quality of training delivered in building codes (e.g. competencies, certification, participant evaluation) Analytical products #/type analytical products generated (e.g. target sector, type of analysis) # of sector specific norms developed (e.g. standard templates) Technical Assistance # countries/projects provided with TA (policy area defined, assistance defined, client defined) #/type policy or project documents citing GFDRR sources or assistance (e.g., National development strategies, World Bank CASs, Investment project documents) Preparedness Capacity building #/type/quality of training delivered in the use of disaster risk information for early warning (e.g. competencies, certification, participant evaluation) #/type/quality of training delivered in n search and rescue and contingency planning (e.g. competencies, certification, participant evaluation)
GLOBAL FACILITY FOR DISASTER REDUCTION AND RECOVERY - A NEW Umbrella Trust Fund 13 Analytical products #/type analytical products generated on preparedness # hydro-met feasibility studies undertaken # operational guidelines for preparedness developed Technical Assistance # countries/projects provided with TA in emergency management (assistance defined, client defined) # countries/projects provided with TA in hydromet and early warning systems (assistance defined, client defined) Financial Protection Capacity building #/type/quality of training delivered in sovereign DRFI (e.g. competencies, certification, participant evaluation) #/type/quality of training delivered in in property catastrophe risk insurance; agricultural insurance; and disaster micro-insurance (e.g. competencies, certification, participant evaluation) Analytical products # feasibility studies undertaken # fiscal risk assessments undertaken # financial analysis tools developed Technical Assistance # countries/projects provided with TA in sovereign disaster risk financing # countries/projects provided with TA in property catastrophe risk insurance; agricultural insurance; or disaster micro-insurance Resilient Recovery Capacity building #/type/quality of training delivered in postdisaster assessment (e.g. competencies, certification, participant evaluation) #/type/quality of training delivered in developing recovery frameworks (e.g. competencies, certification, participant evaluation) Analytical products # analytical studies undertaken in post-disaster engagements # analytical studies undertaken on recovery planning!!! Technical Assistance # countries/projects provided with TA in postdisaster assessments # projects supporting the development of postdisaster recovery frameworks
14 MANAGING DISASTER RISKS FOR A RESILIENT FUTURE ANNEX 2: Strategy and Program Logic of GFDRR What we do What we deliver PILLAR 1 Risk Identification Capacity development in data collection, sharing and management; hazard and exposure modeling/mapping; risk assessment; and risk communication Assistance to implement risk assessments; open source software; open data practices; remote sensing; and institution building Knowledge or tools for risk assessment; open source software; data platforms; and remote sensing a. People in disaster prone countries have access to comprehensive information about physical and societal exposure to disaster risk b. National agencies/cities are equipped with improved means to assess and communicate disaster risks PILLAR 2 Risk Reduction Capacity development in risk reduction policy; land-use planning; building standards; strategy; and planning and investment Assistance to implement investment or reform in risk reduction policy; land-use planning; building standards; strategy; and planning and investment New knowledge; policy analysis; sector specific norms; guidelines and tools Disaster prone countries and their development partners are better able to make decisions on where and how to reduce disaster risks in society PILLAR 3 Preparedness Capacity development in the use of disaster risk information for early warning; search and rescue; and contingency planning Assistance to implement investment or reform in emergency management; public awareness; early warning systems and national hydromet services New knowledge; policy analysis; hydromet feasibility studies; and operational guidelines National and local agencies and CSOs are strengthened to provide better early warning of disasters and respond more effectively when they occur PILLAR 4 Financial Protection Capacity development in sovereign disaster risk financing; property catastrophe risk insurance; agricultural insurance; and disaster micro-insurance Assistance to implement investment or reform in sovereign disaster risk financing; property catastrophe risk insurance; agricultural insurance; and disaster microinsurance New knowledge; policy analysis; strategy reviews; feasibility studies; fiscal risk assessments; and financial analysis tools a. Disaster prone countries have better access to comprehensive information on their financial exposure to disaster risks b. National agencies/cities are equipped with improved means to assess and manage fiscal and other financial risks PILLAR 5 Resilient Recovery Capacity development in the conduct of recovery assessments; good practice recovery planning; and implementation of standards in government systems Assistance to conduct post-disaster assessments and develop post-disaster recovery frameworks Development and dissemination of knowledge on disaster recovery Disaster affected countries have enhanced capacity and improved plans for financing and implementing resilient recovery
GLOBAL FACILITY FOR DISASTER REDUCTION AND RECOVERY - A NEW UMBRELLA TRUST FUND 15 What this leads to Improved identification and understanding of disaster risks Avoided creation of new risks and reduced existing risks in society Improved warning and management of disasters at national, local and community level Increased resilience of people to natural disasters A world where resilient societies manage and adapt to emerging disaster risks and the human and economic impacts of disasters are reduced Increased financial resilience of governments and private sector Quicker, more resilient recovery
16 MANAGING DISASTER RISKS FOR A RESILIENT FUTURE ANNEX 3: Results Framework of GFDRR Inputs Outputs GFDRR provides grants to generate knowledge, build capacity and implement DRM reforms and investment. Assumptions: - Financial commitments from donors are sufficient and contributed in a timely manner - grants are managed effectively, partners maintain their commitments and capacity, and country context (including political environment) remains operationally viable - global commitments to DRM are maintained and developed, particularly in the post-2015 landscape a. People in disaster prone countries have access to comprehensive information about physical and societal exposure to disaster risk b. National agencies/cities are equipped with improved means to assess and communicate disaster risks Indicators: # countries with improved institutional capacity in data collection, sharing and management; hazard and exposure modeling; mapping; risk assessment; and risk communication # countries with effective new solutions in risk assessment; open data practices; remote sensing; and institution building in place # countries provided with new, analytical useful analytical and technical and technical products products and tools and totools to support risk risk assessment; data data platforms; and and remote remote sensing Disaster prone countries and their development partners are better able to make decisions on where and how to reduce disaster risks in society Indicators: # countries with improved institutional capacity in risk reduction policy; land-use planning; building standards; strategy; and planning and investment # countries with effective new solutions in risk reduction policy; land-use planning; building standards; strategy; and planning and investment in place # countries with improved policy analysis; sector specific norms; guidelines and tools # countries where GFDRR helped leverage new investments in structural or non-structural risk reduction National and local agencies and CSOs are strengthened to provide better early warning of disasters and respond more effectively when they occur Indicators: # countries with improved institutional capacity in the use of disaster risk information for early warning; search and rescue; and contingency planning # countries with effective new solutions in emergency management; public awareness; early warning; and service delivery of national hydromet services in place # countries with improved policy analysis; hydromet feasibility studies; and operational guidelines # countries where GFDRR helped leverage new investments in preparedness or early warning a. Disaster prone countries have better access to comprehensive information on their financial exposure to disaster risks b. National agencies/cities are equipped with improved means to assess and manage fiscal and other financial risks Indicators: # countries with improved institutional capacity in sovereign disaster risk financing; property catastrophe risk insurance; agricultural insurance; and disaster microinsurance # countries with effective new solutions in sovereign disaster risk financing; property catastrophe risk insurance; agricultural insurance; and disaster microinsurance in place # countries with improved policy analysis; strategy reviews; feasibility studies; fiscal risk assessments; and financial analysis tools # countries where GFDRR helped leverage new contingent credit or risk financing instruments Disaster affected countries have enhanced capacity and improved plans for financing and implementing resilient recovery Indicators: # countries with institutional capacity developed in the conduct of recovery assessments; development and institutionalization of good practice recovery planning; and implementation of standards in government systems # post-disaster countries supported in conducting rapid and coordinated post-disaster assessments; developing post disaster recovery frameworks # post disaster countries where GFDRR helped leverage large scale investment in resilient recovery and risk reduction Assumptions: - Consensus and trust on risk information is built - national and/or city level resources for maintenance and generation of risk information are secured - risk information is effectively communitcated to policy makers - policy makers are responsive to risk information Assumptions: - increased understanding of physical risk leads to changes in mindsets amongst decision makers - lead technical agencies on disaster risks are able to convene and influence other line ministries - informed decision making leads to an increase in, and effective use of, resources for risk reduction - conflicting market forces are surmountable with new evidence and policies on risks - government policies do not conflict in incentivizing/preventing risky behavior, for example on land use or safety nets Assumptions: - national agencies are appropriately resourced and mandated to implement their improved capacity - preparedness and early warning infrastructure is adequately maintained - investment in early warning adopts an end-to-end philosophy, with a focus on getting the message to those at risk Assumptions: - An increased understanding of financial risk leads to changes in minsets among finance ministers (that fiscal risk of disasters is relatively unimportant or unmanageable) - private sector is willing to engage in the development of catastrophe risk insurance - legislative or regulatory environments do not prohibit the development of risk financing solutions - counter-incentives such as complacency due to expected international humanitarian aid do not outweigh the perceived benefits for partner countries Assumptions: - governments buy into and adopt recommendations and analysis presented in post-disaster assessments - when disaster strikes, governments are able and willing to apply knowledge, capacity and systems developed during peace time despite the high political and operational pressures a disaster event brings GFDRR Accountability
GLOBAL FACILITY FOR DISASTER REDUCTION AND RECOVERY - A NEW UMBRELLA TRUST FUND 17 Assumptions: Assumptions: