II. Macroeconomic performance, issues and policies South-East Asia A. Developing countries in the subregion Subregional overview and prospects Despite the uncertain global economic recovery, the SARS crisis and the build-up to the war in Iraq, developing countries in South-East Asia generally managed to increase GDP growth rates in 2003 (figure II.26). The only exception was Singapore, which was badly affected by the SARS crisis and did not fully benefit as in the past from the upturn in the electronics cycle. Some sectors of the electronics and electrical goods industry were also weak in parts of the subregion, while a number of low-cost, labour-intensive and export-oriented manufactured goods (such as garments and footwear) also faced some difficulties, partly owing to internal reasons, intensifying competition in third-country markets from China and the relocation of production facilities to lower-cost countries. Despite an uncertain external environment, most developing countries in South-East Asia grew faster in 2003 Exporters of agricultural commodities, such as Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand, and of oil and gas, such as Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia and Viet Nam, received a considerable boost from higher commodity Figure II.26. Rates of GDP growth in selected South-East Asian economies, 2000-2003 Percentage 10 8 6 4 2 (a) Brunei Darussalam, Philippines and Viet Nam 0 2000 2001 2002 2003 Percentage (b) Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 2000 2001 2002 2003 Brunei Darussalam Viet Nam Philippines Indonesia Singapore Malaysia Thailand Sources: ESCAP, based on national sources; and ADB, Key Indicators of Developing Asian and Pacific Countries 2003 (Manila, ADB, 2003). Note: Data for 2003 are estimates. 161
Economic and Social Survey of Asia and the Pacific 2004 prices, which were in part sustained by significantly increased demand from China. The service sector, which now accounts for a large share of GDP in many developing countries of South-East Asia, was hit by the SARS epidemic, not only in Singapore as noted above but also in Thailand and Viet Nam. However, other services related to business (such as transport and communications), financial services and vehicle distribution expanded in all countries and retail trade also recovered. One of the principal pillars sustaining growth in most parts of the subregion was higher private consumption expenditure, which, in turn, was underpinned by historically low interest rates and increased access to credit, and in some cases, rising farm incomes. In particular, spending on motor vehicles was up in many countries. While private investment expenditure recovered or expanded strongly in a number of countries (such as Thailand and Viet Nam), the investment ratio in most countries in the subregion, except notably Viet Nam, was still below the pre-1997 crisis levels. Fiscal restraint was significant in 2003, although Malaysia and Viet Nam continued to register robust expenditure on development projects. External demand provided an added boost to several countries, although less so to Indonesia, the Philippines and Singapore, and many countries saw trade with China surge. The outlook for subregional growth in 2004 has improved The strengthening global economic recovery, the continued prevalence of low levels of interest rates and firm commodity prices should boost growth in South-East Asia in 2004, particularly in Singapore and Thailand. The former country should also benefit from a solidifying recovery in electronics. However, lagging investment could be a constraint on medium-term growth in many countries, although business confidence has generally been on the rise throughout the subregion. Private consumption expenditure is likely to slow, in part reflecting higher levels of debt, while the need for fiscal consolidation may have a restrictive impact on public expenditure in many countries. However, trade, particularly intraregional trade, is likely to increase and the benefits of the various FTAs and RTAs will be reflected in lower consumer prices. The National Economic and Social Development Board of Thailand has forecast a further acceleration of growth to 7-8 per cent, given a favourable external environment. The negative impact of the avian influenza epidemic, which began at the end of 2003, could shave 0.1-0.5 percentage points off this forecast in 2004, depending on the duration of the loss in exports, the (still-unknown) risks of human-to-human transmission and its effects on tourism and travel. However, lower earnings on chicken exports could be more than offset by the expected strong growth in other exports while government support for selected industries, together with the ambitious infrastructure development plan, could offset any fall-off in aggregate demand. 162
II. Macroeconomic performance, issues and policies Avian influenza will also affect growth in several other South-East Asian countries, including Viet Nam, where continued strong growth, expected at 7.5 per cent in 2004, will be helped by a strengthening world economy and increased FDI from Japan following the signing of an agreement with that country. To sustain medium-term growth, the Government is pushing strongly to join WTO by 2005, a process requiring greater trade liberalization in Viet Nam, the abolition of quantitative restrictions and the conversion of non-tariff into tariff barriers. Other things being equal, Indonesia expects aggregate production to accelerate to 4.8 per cent in 2004. An increase in investment is critical and will necessitate attracting both domestic and foreign savings, but increased debt-service pressures and rising global interest rates could reduce the available financial resources. The avian influenza epidemic is the first shock of 2004 Although government policy remains strongly supportive of growth, the budget for 2004 indicates that fiscal consolidation is being given priority in Malaysia. GDP growth, targeted at 5.5-6.0 per cent in 2004-2005, will depend on a revival in investment and strong external demand. Much the same is true of Singapore, where the broad-based recovery in business confidence augurs well for future growth. The Government is forecasting GDP growth to be in the 3.5-5.5 per cent range in 2004. In the Philippines, the current expansion is likely to be sustained in 2004 if inflation and interest rates remain low and the external environment strengthens. However, continuing political uncertainty and the recent downgrade in ratings will tend to increase interest costs, making the task of fiscal consolidation harder. The Government is targeting GDP growth at 4.9-5.8 per cent in 2004 and this may also require a strong reversal of the falling business confidence in the Philippines. Consumer prices continued to be generally muted owing to the persistence of various margins of spare capacity and demand that was not excessive (figure II.27). At the same time, cost pressures were contained in part by currency appreciation in many cases as well as by competition from imports. The remarkable fall of 5.3 percentage points in the rate of inflation in Indonesia reflected monetary restraint and low food prices. Adequate stocks also helped the Philippines and Viet Nam to keep food prices and hence inflation in check, despite currency depreciation. Increased food and energy prices were, however, responsible for an increase in consumer prices in Thailand, although inflation remains low in absolute terms. Singapore managed to reverse the deflation of 2002 and the positive, but small, rate of inflation in 2003 partly reflected higher sales tax and electricity charges; the latter attributable to more expensive oil prices. Monetary policy was accommodative in most parts of South- East Asia and low inflation together with currency stability enabled central banks to sustain record low interest rate levels. Inflation was subdued in the subregion in 2003 163
Economic and Social Survey of Asia and the Pacific 2004 Figure II.27. Inflation a in selected South-East Asian economies, 2000-2003 Percentage 15 10 5 (a) Indonesia, Philippines and Thailand 0 2000 2001 2002 2003 Percentage (b) Malaysia, Singapore and Viet Nam 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 2000 2001 2002 2003 Indonesia Thailand Philippines Malaysia Viet Nam Singapore Sources: ESCAP, based on national sources; ADB, Key Indicators of Developing Asian and Pacific Countries 2003 (Manila, ADB, 2003); and Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Forecasts (London, EIU, 2003), various issues. Note: a Data for 2003 are estimates. Changes in the consumer price index. Merchandise exports generally expanded in 2003 in South-East Asia (figure II.28) with the sharpest increase registered in the first 6 months of the year by Brunei Darussalam, an oil and gas exporter, while the slowest growth occurred in the Philippines, where electronics exports fell. In Singapore, the strong performance of pharmaceutical products could not fully compensate for weak electronics exports. However, Malaysia was able to rely on agricultural products, as well as other manufactured goods such as chemicals to offset declining export earnings on electronics and electrical goods. In contrast, Thailand and Viet Nam saw exports of electronic products surge, along with commodities exports. Strong growth in the export of automotive products was also achieved by Thailand, and in garments, textiles and footwear by Viet Nam. However, exports of garments and footwear from the Philippines and Indonesia declined somewhat and Indonesia relied on primary commodities, including hydrocarbons, for export growth. Intraregional trade within East and South-East Asia has been an important factor sustaining export growth, as noted above. 164
II. Macroeconomic performance, issues and policies Figure II.28. Growth rates in merchandise export earnings of selected South-East Asian economies, 2000-2003 Percentage (a) Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, Malaysia and Philippines 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 20 2000 2001 2002 2003 Percentage (b) Singapore, Thailand and Viet Nam 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 2000 2001 2002 2003 Brunei Darussalam Malaysia Indonesia Philippines Singapore Viet Nam Thailand Sources: IMF, Direction of Trade Statistics (CD-ROM), November 2003; Statistics Indonesia web site <http://www. bps.go.id>, 19 February 2004; Malaysia Economic Planning Unit web site <http://www.epu.jpm.my/bi/stat/kei/ext2001.pdf>, 12 January 2004; Philippines National Statistics Office web site <http://www.census.gov.ph/data/sectordata/tsft.htm>, 13 January 2004; Bank of Thailand web site <http://www.bot.or.th/bothomepage/databank/econdata/thai_key/thai_key E.asp>, 8 December 2003; Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Reports (London, EIU, 2003), various issues; and other national sources. Note: Data for 2003 refer to January-June, except for Indonesia (preliminary data for the whole year), the Philippines and Thailand (January-October), Malaysia (January-November) and Viet Nam (estimates for the whole year). Merchandise imports declined in Brunei Darussalam (figure II.29), as demand for vehicles tapered off, and in Malaysia, as investment and export demand remained relatively subdued. Lower demand for machinery and capital goods imports as well as intermediate inputs was seen in Indonesia, the Philippines and Singapore. However, broad-based growth in merchandise imports occurred in Thailand and Viet Nam, with imports of consumer and capital goods, as well as intermediate inputs, expanding with vigour. Spending on merchandise exports was at a faster rate than in 2002 but import growth was often weak On the capital account, net inflows of FDI were generally weak, even though they increased somewhat in Brunei Darussalam, Thailand and Viet Nam. Singapore was an exception, with a sharp jump in FDI towards the end of 2003. Much of the increase reflected reduced outflows and reinvestment of earnings. Meanwhile, the generally strong performance of stock markets in the subregion was behind inflows of portfolio investment in a number of countries. Exchange rates appreciated against the United States dollar, except for the Malaysian ringgit, which is pegged to that currency, and the Philippine peso and Vietnamese dong, which 165
Economic and Social Survey of Asia and the Pacific 2004 Figure II.29. Growth rates in merchandise import spending of selected South-East Asian economies, 2000-2003 Percentage (a) Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, Malaysia and Philippines 50 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 2000 2001 2002 2003 Percentage (b) Singapore, Thailand and Viet Nam 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 20 2000 2001 2002 2003 Brunei Darussalam Malaysia Indonesia Philippines Singapore Viet Nam Thailand Sources: IMF, Direction of Trade Statistics (CD-ROM), November 2003; Statistics Indonesia web site <http://www. bps.go.id>, 19 February 2004; Malaysia Economic Planning Unit web site <http://www.epu.jpm.my/bi/stat/kei/ext2001.pdf>, 12 January 2004; Philippines National Statistics Office web site <http://www.census.gov.ph/data/sectordata/tsft.htm>, 13 January 2004; Bank of Thailand web site <http://www.bot.or.th/bothomepage/databank/econdata/thai_key/thai_key E.asp>, 8 December 2003; Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Reports (London, EIU, 2003), various issues; and other national sources. Note: Data for 2003 refer to January-June, except for Indonesia (preliminary data for the whole year), the Philippines and Thailand (January-October), Malaysia (January-November) and Viet Nam (estimates for the whole year). depreciated (figure II.30). Gross international reserves increased in all the developing countries in South-East Asia. Additionally, increased market confidence in most of those countries was indicated by ratings upgrades or affirmations for their long-term sovereign debt denominated in foreign currency in the course of 2003, except for Viet Nam, where the ratings were unchanged but the outlook was lowered, and the Philippines, which suffered a ratings downgrade early in 2004. There was substantial continuity in the policy agenda in 2003 Poverty and unemployment continued to be important concerns, although many countries have made good progress on the Millennium Development Goals, meeting the first target of halving income poverty from 1990 levels well ahead of time. Restructuring and strengthening of the financial sector, including through bank consolidation, received particular attention in 2003. Fiscal consolidation, after six years of postcrisis expansionary policies, was a matter that would require continuing attention. Finally, sustaining growth in the medium and long terms in an increasingly competitive world is an issue to be managed by all countries, not only those in the subregion. 166
II. Macroeconomic performance, issues and policies Figure II.30. Index of exchange rates against the United States dollar of selected South-East Asian economies, 1996-2003 120 (1996 = 100) 100 80 Index 60 40 20 0 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Indonesia Philippines Thailand Malaysia Singapore and Brunei Darussalam Viet Nam Sources: IMF, International Financial Statistics, vol. LVI, No. 12 (Washington, IMF, December 2003); and Far Eastern Economic Review, various issues. Notes: Data for 2003 are estimates. The currency of Brunei Darussalam is set at par with the Singapore dollar. GDP growth performance Viet Nam was the first country to contain the SARS outbreak in April 2003, and notwithstanding the considerable disruption to tourism and other exports, GDP growth for the full year was expected at 7.2 per cent, marginally higher than the rate in 2002 but slightly below the target level of 7.5 per cent (table II.31). The high growth experienced by Viet Nam in recent years has been driven by strong domestic demand, particularly investment, as well as exports. Household consumption expenditure, which had been on an upward trend owing to higher prices for agricultural commodities as well as higher wages, eased somewhat in 2003. Increased household savings were reflected in the higher savings ratio between 2002 and 2003, from 28.8 to 30 per cent of GDP (table II.32). Despite lower FDI, total investment expanded rapidly in recent years. In particular, the investment ratio went up to 34.2 per cent of GDP in 2003, from 32.1 per cent the previous year, as a result of the ongoing expansion of the domestic non-state sector and the creation of new private enterprises; the non-state sector increased its share of 167
Economic and Social Survey of Asia and the Pacific 2004 Table II.31. Selected South-East Asian economies: growth rates, 2000-2003 (Percentage) Rates of growth Gross domestic product Agriculture Industry Services Brunei Darussalam 2000 2.8...... 2001 1.5...... 2002 3.4...... 2003 4.0...... Indonesia 2000 4.9 1.9 5.9 5.2 2001 3.4 1.0 3.3 4.6 2002 3.7 1.7 3.7 4.4 2003 4.1 2.4 4.5 4.4 Malaysia 2000 8.5 2.6 13.6 6.0 2001 0.3 0.9 3.8 6.1 2002 4.1 3.0 3.9 4.2 2003 5.2 5.5 7.1 4.1 Philippines 2000 6.0 4.3 9.0 4.4 2001 3.0 3.7 0.9 4.2 2002 4.4 3.3 3.8 5.4 2003 4.5 3.9 3.0 5.9 Singapore a 2000 9.4 4.9 10.9 8.7 2001 2.4 5.9 9.2 1.1 2002 2.2 6.0 4.0 1.4 2003 1.1 2.4 1.5 1.0 Thailand 2000 4.8 7.2 5.3 3.7 2001 2.1 3.5 1.7 2.3 2002 5.4 3.0 6.9 4.5 2003 6.3 3.4 9.0 4.4 Viet Nam 2000 6.8 4.6 10.1 5.3 2001 6.9 2.8 10.4 6.1 2002 7.0 4.1 9.4 6.5 2003 7.2 3.2 10.3 6.6 Sources: ESCAP, based on national sources; ADB, Key Indicators of Developing Asian and Pacific Countries 2003 (Manila, ADB, 2003), and Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Forecasts and Country Reports (London, EIU, 2003 and 2004), various issues. Notes: Data for 2003 are estimates. Industry comprises mining and quarrying; manufacturing; electricity, gas and power; and construction. a Agriculture also includes fishing and quarrying. 168 total investment from 25.3 to 26.7 per cent between 2002 and 2003. Nevertheless, the State sector continued to account for over 56 per cent of total investment while the relative share of total investment accounted for by firms with foreign capital was down from an average of 18.5 per cent in 2000-2002 to 16.8 per cent in 2003.
II. Macroeconomic performance, issues and policies Table II.32. Selected South-East Asian economies: ratios of gross domestic savings and investment to GDP, 2000-2003 (Percentage) 2000 2001 2002 2003 Savings as a percentage of GDP Indonesia 26.2 26.0 23.6 20.4 Malaysia 47.1 42.2 41.8 41.9 Philippines 17.5 18.1 19.5 20.1 Singapore 47.9 44.0 43.9 46.7 Thailand 33.1 32.0 32.6 31.4 Viet Nam 27.1 28.8 28.8 30.0 Investment as a percentage of GDP Indonesia 21.0 21.2 19.5 17.9 Malaysia 27.1 23.8 24.4 24.3 Philippines 21.5 20.6 19.3 18.7 Singapore 32.0 24.9 21.2 13.4 Thailand 22.7 23.9 23.8 24.6 Viet Nam 29.6 31.2 32.1 34.2 Sources: ESCAP, based on national sources; and ADB, Key Indicators of Developing Asian and Pacific Countries 2003 (Manila, ADB, 2003). Note: Data for 2003 are estimates. On the supply side, industrial production (contributing over 53 per cent to GDP growth) expanded at 10.3 per cent with such manufacturing subsectors as food and beverages, apparel and electrical machinery and apparatus growing in excess of 15 per cent. There was also rapid expansion in the energy sector although agricultural growth slowed somewhat in 2003 because of weather-related shocks, despite a recovery in the fisheries industry following the removal of sanitary restrictions in the EU and the United States. Notwithstanding the temporary SARSinduced setback to the tourism and travel industries, the service sector (contributing over 37 per cent to GDP growth) continued to expand in 2003; the sector gained 6.6 per cent in value added owing to a strong performance in trade, banking and insurance, and public services. Industrial production was the main driver of growth in Viet Nam In 2003, the Thai economy continued the strong performance of 2002 that saw GDP surpassing its 1997 level for the first time. Aggregate production decelerated somewhat in the second quarter of 2003 but a sharp rebound afterwards lifted growth for the year to 6.3 per cent, up from 5.4 per cent in 2002. Much of the impetus for growth in 2002 and 2003 came from private consumption expenditure (with a share of nearly 55 per cent of GDP in 2002), reflecting in turn a robust increase in farm incomes, as a result of higher commodity prices, low interest rates, increased access to credit and strong consumer confidence. However, 169
Economic and Social Survey of Asia and the Pacific 2004 consumption growth slowed during the year, in contrast to the continued strong recovery of private investment from the second half of 2002, up 17.7 per cent in the first three quarters of 2003, as against 12 per cent in the same period in 2002. Although much of the recovery was driven by construction-related activities, investment in machinery and equipment was also up significantly along with the sustained revival of business confidence. Capacity utilization in manufacturing averaged 66.2 per cent in 2003 compared with 59.3 per cent in the previous year. However, government consumption fell in the first 9 months of 2003, reversing the expansion recorded in the same period in 2002, while the fall-off in public investment that began in 2002 accelerated in 2003. The support provided by net exports to growth also declined during the year, pulled down principally by a weak performance in services. Growth was broadly based in Thailand Growth in the service sector was only marginally lowered by the SARS-related decline in tourism, which affected the hotels and restaurants sector particularly severely in the second quarter of 2003. Transport and communications were also affected by the fall in inbound and outbound travel but a compensating development was the continued expansion in financial services, with growth accelerating to 9.9 per cent in January- September 2003, from 7.7 per cent in the same period in 2002. Agricultural production also improved between 2002 and 2003, as both the crops and livestock sectors benefited from strong demand and higher prices along with the recovery of fisheries. Manufacturing activities were particularly robust in 2003 compared with 2002. Among the fastestgrowing sectors were electrical and electronic parts, food production and vehicles and equipment. In contrast, public construction remained weak. However, the strong expansion in private construction that had begun in late-2001 continued into 2003 and the momentum was sufficient to pull overall growth in the industrial sector up to 9.0 per cent in 2003. In Malaysia, GDP growth of 5.2 per cent during 2003 was considerably faster than in 2002 and above the official forecast of 4.5 per cent. Domestic demand made a significant contribution to growth, stimulated by robust public spending on development projects. However, private investment remained relatively weak, with the ratio of investment to GDP remaining at around 24.3 per cent in 2002-2003. Capacity utilization averaged 78 per cent during 2001-2003. On the supply side, Malaysia was able to offset demand volatility in the market for electronics with strong growth in commodity-related sectors and agricultural output rose by 5.5 per cent in 2003 (nearly double the previous year s 3 per cent growth) as high commodity prices provided a stimulus to palm oil and rubber production. Despite somewhat slower growth in construction, industrial value added expanded at the considerably faster rate of 7.1 per cent in 2003, compared with 3.9 per cent the preceding year, on the back of a strong performance from export-oriented 170
II. Macroeconomic performance, issues and policies manufacturing in response to the recovery of global demand, particularly for electronics, chemicals and processed rubber products. However, there were signs that some sectors of the electronics and electrical goods industry, which accounted for around 53 per cent of manufacturing output and 70 per cent of manufactured exports, faced some difficulties competing in third markets, particularly for electrical goods. Growth in services was steady at around 4.1 per cent in 2002-2003 but slower than the 6 per cent on average in 2000-2001. The sector was hit by a contraction in tourism-related activities and other final services although intermediate services grew strongly in response to the rising need for business-related services such as transport, finance and insurance. Export-oriented manufacturing recovered in Malaysia Output slowed in the Philippines in the first half of 2003 but with an upturn in the second half, estimated full-year growth of 4.5 per cent was slightly higher than in 2002. Stimulated by low inflation and interest rates as well as steady growth in inward remittances, consumer spending was the principal support for growth. Export demand remained weak and government expenditure was cut back, including in capital construction, in order to control the budget deficit, impacting on fixed investment; the investment ratio declined further to 18.7 per cent of GDP in 2003, compared with an average of about 21 per cent during 2000-2001. Despite the SARS scare, service sector output growth in the Philippines increased to 5.9 per cent in 2003, compared with 5.4 per cent the previous year, owing to a strong performance in transport and communications, and other services. The sector accounts for nearly 53 per cent of GDP in the Philippines. Industrial production was initially sustained by a moderate recovery in manufacturing, which petered out subsequently as electronics exports remained weak. Manufacturing capacity utilization, which had risen to nearly 79 per cent by June 2003, was down to 77.5 per cent in September. Construction also declined with public expenditure cut back, while drought related to an El Niño weather event in the first quarter and typhoons in the second dragged agricultural production down. The sector staged a strong recovery in the second half of the year, however, as a result of a rebound in the rice crop that more than offset a further decline in maize. Buoyant services sustained GDP growth in the Philippines In Indonesia, GDP growth of 4.1 per cent in 2003 was somewhat higher than the Government s forecast of 4 per cent as well as the 3.7 per cent rate of 2002. The return of macroeconomic stability has enabled the country to withstand the various shocks mentioned earlier as well as domestic problems related to terrorism and regional unrest. Again, induced by low deposit rates and easy access to credit, consumer spending was the main driver of growth although the savings ratio continued the decline that had started in 2001, falling to 20.4 per cent of GDP in 2003. Exports appear to have contributed less to growth in Indonesia than in 171
Economic and Social Survey of Asia and the Pacific 2004 some other countries of the subregion while tourism revived briefly after the SARS scare only to slump again after the bombing of a leading hotel. Investment also grew slowly and, as a percentage of GDP, declined to 17.9 per cent in 2003, well below the 30 per cent on average in the years before 1997. Around four fifths of investment was estimated to have accrued in property and only 18 per cent in plant and machinery in the first 9 months of 2003. GDP growth benefited somewhat from commodity exports in Indonesia Agricultural output went up by 2.4 per cent in 2003, from 1.7 per cent in 2002, despite floods in the third quarter of the year. There was a significant rise in the production of crude palm oil and cocoa in response to higher commodity prices while growth in industrial production was sustained in 2003 by faster growth in mining and quarrying, utilities and construction. However, manufacturing production slowed in the first 9 months of the year despite a sharp increase in automotive sales, especially passenger vehicles, stimulated by low interest rates and easier consumer credit. Growth in services remained steady at 4.4 per cent on average in 2001-2003. The main determinant of economic performance in Brunei Darussalam continued to be the oil and gas sector, with a relative share of 37 per cent of GDP in 2002. Higher oil prices were behind faster annual growth in 2002-2003 despite the lingering weakness in the private sector. GDP growth in 2003 was expected to be around 4 per cent, below the 5-6 per cent estimated in the eighth plan. Although most private sector industries were expected to grow slowly or contract during 2003-2004, a recovery in tourism and a better outlook for exports should help to stimulate activities in the non-oil and gas sector, particularly if development projects are implemented as planned. The private sector has not yet taken off in Brunei Darussalam Manufacturing contributed to around 4 per cent of GDP and major industries are related to construction and garments. The latter industry has benefited from United States quotas, due to expire in 2005; high labour costs could render the industry uncompetitive afterwards. Construction activities recovered strongly from a contraction of 2.4 per cent in 2001 to expand 7.5 per cent in the following year but a real estate glut in the capital added to the sector s difficulties in 2003. The food industry has been targeted for expansion as four fifths of domestic food consumption is imported. However, the development of small-scale domestic food processing has been hampered by higher costs. As to services, the expansion in the hotels and restaurants subsectors slowed in the first half of 2003 on SARS-related concerns; domestic retail activities benefited from the reduced outward travel of nationals in early 2003 but slumped later in the year possibly as a result of increased consumer indebtedness. The reduction in motor vehicle import taxes in November 2001 lifted the number of car owners from 170,000 in 2002 to 200,000 in 2003. The banking sector remained robust, lending principally to households. 172
II. Macroeconomic performance, issues and policies Singapore s economy recovered from a sharp contraction in GDP in the second quarter of 2003, equal to 3.9 per cent year on year, as a result of the SARS outbreak and soft external demand for electronics; it expanded by 1.7 and 4.9 per cent year on year in the third and fourth quarters respectively along with the recovery of both external demand and private domestic consumption. For the year as a whole, GDP growth is expected to be around 1.1 per cent, half the 2.2 per cent achieved in 2002. Strong demand for motor vehicles boosted private consumption, but the savings rate increased further to 46.7 per cent in 2003. Gross capital formation continued to contract, with investment falling sharply to 13.4 per cent of GDP in 2003, 7.8 percentage points below its level in the previous year and less than half the level achieved by Viet Nam. The decline reflected weakness in the property market, where vacancy rates were high and prices have been falling. Public investment in housing has also declined but expenditure on durable equipment has revived to some extent. According to the Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS), the sectors most severely affected by the SARS outbreak were hotels and restaurants, whose output contracted 29 per cent in the second quarter with smaller declines of around 8 and 6 per cent in the third and fourth quarters as tourism slowly revived; retail trade and air and land transport were similarly affected. The upturn in external trade and increased motor vehicles sales as well as continued strength in financial services strengthened growth in the service sector in the fourth quarter. For 2003 as a whole, however, the service sector is estimated to have grown 1.0 per cent, down from 1.4 per cent in 2002. Growth in manufacturing faltered in the second quarter as demand for electronics remained weak but a strong performance by the biomedical sector and improved export demand for electronics led to a revival in manufacturing activities in the second half of 2003. Indeed, healthy external demand was behind the higher production of semiconductors and disk drives, as well as pharmaceuticals. However, the construction industry is estimated to have declined 10.7 per cent in 2003, following another drop of 10.8 per cent in 2002. Overall, growth in industrial production slowed markedly to an estimated 1.5 per cent in 2003 from 4 per cent the previous year. Sectors affected by the SARS epidemic accounted for 30 per cent of Singapore s GDP Inflation A stable exchange rate, effective control over the money supply and lower food prices were responsible for the sharp drop in inflation in Indonesia during 2003 (table II.33). The annual increase in the consumer price index was 6.6 per cent in 2003, compared with an average of 11.7 per cent per year in 2001-2002. Broad money growth (M2) slowed to 4.7 per cent in 2002 but appeared to have grown somewhat faster in the first 9 months of 2003. Lower inflation and currency stability permitted Bank Indonesia to let short-term interest rates fall to record The slowdown in inflation in Indonesia was remarkable 173
Economic and Social Survey of Asia and the Pacific 2004 Table II.33. Selected South-East Asian economies: inflation and money supply growth (M2), 2000-2003 (Percentage) 2000 2001 2002 2003 Inflation a Indonesia 3.7 11.5 11.9 6.6 Malaysia 1.5 1.4 1.8 1.2 Philippines 4.4 6.1 3.1 3.1 Singapore 1.3 1.0 0.4 0.5 Thailand 1.6 1.6 0.7 1.8 Viet Nam 1.7 0.4 3.9 3.0 Money supply growth (M2) Indonesia 15.6 13.0 4.7 5.7 b Malaysia 5.2 2.2 5.8 7.8 b Philippines 8.1 3.6 9.7 5.7 c Singapore 2.0 5.9 0.3 8.1 Thailand 3.4 2.4 1.4 1.6 c Viet Nam 35.4 27.3 13.3 21.7 d Sources: ESCAP, based on national sources; ADB, Key Indicators of Developing Asian and Pacific Countries 2003 (Manila, ADB, 2003); IMF, International Financial Statistics, vol. LVI, No. 12 (Washington, IMF, December 2003); and Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Forecasts (London, EIU, 2003), various issues. Notes: a b c d Data for 2003 are estimates. Changes in the consumer price index. January-September. January-August. January-July. 174 lows; the rate on 1-month Bank Indonesia certificates was at 8.31 per cent in December or nearly 5 percentage points below the end-2002 level. Bank lending rates have not fallen to the same extent with working capital rates down to 16.4 per cent in the third quarter as against 18.3 per cent at the end of 2002. However, commercial bank credit to consumers has expanded rapidly. Inflation is expected to fall somewhat over 2004-2005 as a result of a stronger and more stable rupiah, and lower minimum wage rises; the latter reflecting a greater awareness among stakeholders of the negative impact on competitiveness. Inflation also declined in Malaysia from 1.8 per cent in 2002 to an estimated 1.2 per cent in 2003. Excess capacity, weak consumer demand and competition from imports helped to offset higher food prices in the second half of 2003, owing in part to currency weakness and to a greater willingness by businesses to pass on price increases to consumers. However, inflation is forecast to pick up modestly in 2004 as governmentcontrolled prices and charges will likely increase later in the year.
II. Macroeconomic performance, issues and policies Monetary policy remained accommodative in Malaysia, with broad money growth accelerating between 2002 and 2003; Bank Negara Malaysia also lowered its 3-month intervention rate by 50 basis points to 4.5 per cent in May, the lowest level for 10 years, at the same time as the announcement of the Government s additional stimulus package. Lending and deposit rates were also lower and there has been a significant expansion in bank credit. The central bank has said that the current intervention rate will be maintained as long as there is excess capacity in the domestic economy and inflation remains weak. However, it is also seeking to keep the intervention rate above international rates to deter capital outflows and accumulate international reserves. After falling in 2000-2001, consumer prices increased 3.9 per cent in Viet Nam during 2002; higher food prices were due to low inventories of rice and the flood-damaged rice crop. Inflation slowed in 2003 as food prices declined for much of the year. However, the prices of pharmaceuticals went up by nearly 21 per cent year on year in November and the prices of housing and construction materials also rose rapidly. Compounded by a pickup in food prices towards the end of the year, inflation reached 3 per cent in 2003. Inflationary pressures are expected to pick up in 2004 in line with stronger domestic demand, higher food prices and higher wage and other production costs. Currency weakness will add to these pressures. Monetary policy was expansionary in 2003, with the broad money supply increasing by about 22 per cent in the first 7 months of the year, well above the 13.3 per cent year on year growth at the end of 2002. Credit expanded rapidly for both consumption and investment purposes, by an estimated 29 per cent year on year in July 2003. The pace of open market operations, which commenced in January 2001, has increased over time but the State Bank of Viet Nam has continued to rely on indirect instruments and changes in regulations to support credit expansion. Consumer prices drifted upward through 2003 in the Philippines because of higher oil prices and the depreciation of the peso. For the full year, however, inflation was expected to be around 3.1 per cent, unchanged from 2002. This reflected an even slower pace of growth in the prices of food, beverages and tobacco; the disruptions in rice production in the first half of the year were offset by adequate stocks. The inflation targeted by the Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas (BSP) for 2004 is in the 4-5 per cent range, as inflationary pressures are expected to be stronger this year. BSP tightened monetary policy in March to pre-empt inflationary risks arising from the budget deficit, the weakening peso and concerns about the Iraq war. Bank liquidity reserves were increased and the ratetiering system was removed, effectively lowering yields on placements with BSP. Monetary policy was eased at mid-year, however, when rates were lowered 25 basis points, but increased political uncertainty and the resulting slide in the peso led to a tightening in the third quarter. Broad money growth, which had accelerated towards the end of 2002 to an annual growth rate of 9.7 per cent, slowed to 5.7 per cent in January-August 2003. The central bank s intervention rate is at its lowest level in 10 years in Malaysia Inflation in the Philippines was contained by slow growth in food prices despite disruptions in rice production 175
Economic and Social Survey of Asia and the Pacific 2004 The weak economy and rising NPLs hampered bank lending and credit growth slowed despite relatively low interest rates. The subdued inflation has enabled BSP to hold interest rates steady since July 2003, at the comparatively low levels of 6.75 per cent in the case of the overnight borrowing rate and 9 per cent for the overnight lending rate. However, interest rates on 91-day treasury bills, which fell from 8.9 per cent in December 2001 to 5.2 per cent in December 2002, drifted up to reach 6.5 per cent in November 2003 as political uncertainty persisted and fiscal slippage opened up the prospect of greater dependence on domestic capital markets for funding by the Government. Higher taxes and charges contributed to a reversal of Singapore s 2002 deflation Consumer prices in Singapore fell 0.4 per cent in 2002 but this deflation was turned around to modest inflation of 0.5 per cent in 2003. The increase in the goods and services tax to 4 per cent and higher electricity charges (owing to rising oil prices) put some upward pressure on prices but inflation remained relatively muted because of soft demand conditions. The outlook is for a marginally faster rise in consumer prices, by 1.1 per cent for 2004, as consumer demand strengthens and the second increase in the goods and services tax to 5 per cent occurs. However, an offsetting factor is that Singapore should also benefit from lower imported inflation as a result of its FTAs. From the beginning of 2003, MAS has maintained a neutral policy stance, targeting zero appreciation in the trade-weighted nominal effective exchange rate. MAS lowered the midpoint of the band within which the exchange rate is permitted to fluctuate in July, however, effectively easing monetary policy. Combined with reduced demand for credit, this has permitted interest rates to remain below 1 per cent; the 3-month interbank rate declined from 0.81 per cent at the end of 2002 to reach a low of 0.63 per cent in June 2003, before rising somewhat to end the year at 0.75 per cent. The prime lending rate was stable at 5.30 per cent during 2003, slightly lower than the 5.35 per cent level in the previous year. Inflation also remained low in Thailand in 2003, although it was up from the 0.7 per cent recorded in 2002. Headline consumer price inflation averaged 1.8 per cent, largely as a result of higher food and energy prices, but the upward pressures on prices were contained by a strong currency, increased domestic and foreign competitive pressures and a continuing margin of spare capacity. Core inflation, excluding food and energy prices, averaged 0.2 per cent in 2003 but was close to zero in the last four months of the year as housing rents declined on increased home ownership. Inflation was expected to pick up somewhat in 2004 as a result of strong economic growth and continued high food prices, but currency strength and lower import prices as a result of the country s FTAs are expected to moderate upward price pressures. 176
II. Macroeconomic performance, issues and policies Monetary policy remained accommodative in 2003 as the Bank of Thailand (BOT) maintained the 14-day repurchase rate steady at 1.25 per cent in the second half of the year, after having reduced it to that level in June 2003 with a 50 basis point cut. The cut was motivated by a need to reduce interest rate differentials and head off upward pressure on the currency as global interest rates declined, as well as to support domestic consumption. Bank minimum lending rates in the second half of 2003 were in the 5.50-5.75 per cent range, down from 6.50-7.00 per cent at the end of 2002. Although corporate lending was reviving towards the end of the year, it remained subdued for much of 2003, with bank lending being directed mainly at consumers. Many businesses are choosing to rely on internally generated funds, as well as equity and bond financing, as a result of the lessons learned from the 1997 financial crisis. Consumers have benefited from lower interest rates and increased access to credit in Thailand Fiscal policy and public debt In Malaysia, fiscal policy continued to be the main tool for economic stabilization. In particular, an additional stimulus package, amounting to M$ 7.3 billion and equivalent to 2 per cent of GDP, was introduced in May to counter the adverse effects of SARS and a weakening external environment. Partly as a result, the budget deficit was expected to widen to around 5.4 per cent of GDP, compared with an earlier target of 3.9 per cent and an actual deficit of 5.6 per cent in 2002 (table II.34). The federal Government s debt as a percentage of GDP has been on a rising trend, from 32 per cent in 1997 to 46 per cent in 2002 and 48 per cent in the third quarter of 2003. However, interest costs have remained low as liquidity in the banking system has been ample, partly because of the persistent sluggishness of private investment. Fiscal policy has also been expansionary in Viet Nam, with the budget deficit widening from 3.5 to 4.8 per cent of GDP between 2002 and 2003, but the shortfall remained below the 5 per cent limit set by the Government. Public spending increased substantially in 2003, by 14.1 per cent, owing to higher wages and pensions for civil servants, the costs of recapitalization of State-owned banks and spending on infrastructure development. However, there has also been rapid growth in tax revenues, which in 2003 expanded by 11.3 per cent as a result of faster economic growth and improved tax administration and collection. The tax ratio is now around 22 per cent of GDP. In the Philippines, the budget deficit was contained within the Government s revised target of 4.7 per cent of GDP for much of 2003; tax collections exceeded goals for the first time in seven years following sustained efforts to improve tax administration, while concerted and effective efforts were made to restrain expenditure. Despite some slippage Despite some slippage during 2003, the fiscal deficit was contained in the Philippines 177
Economic and Social Survey of Asia and the Pacific 2004 Table II.34. Selected South-East Asian economies: budget and current account balance as a percentage of GDP, 2000-2003 (Percentage) 2000 2001 2002 2003 Budget balance as a percentage of GDP Indonesia 1.2 2.8 1.7 1.9 Malaysia 5.8 5.5 5.6 5.4 Philippines a 4.1 4.0 5.2 4.6 Singapore 2.5 1.8 0.1 0.6 Thailand 2.2 2.4 1.4 1.2 Viet Nam b 4.8 3.8 3.5 4.8 Current account balance as a percentage of GDP Indonesia 5.3 4.9 4.2 3.7 Malaysia 9.4 8.3 7.6 6.2 Philippines 7.8 1.8 5.4 3.6 Singapore 14.5 19.0 21.5 30.8 Thailand 7.6 5.4 6.0 6.1 Viet Nam 2.1 2.1 1.7 5.1 Sources: ESCAP, based on national sources; ADB, Key Indicators of Developing Asian and Pacific Countries 2003 (Manila, ADB, 2003); Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Forecasts (London, EIU, 2003), various issues; and web site of the Ministry of Finance of Singapore <www.mof.gov.sg/budget_2003/fiscal_overview/>, 21 November 2003. Note: Data for 2003 are estimates. a b Including grants. Including on-lending. 178 in public spending towards the end of the year, the budget deficit for the full year was 4.6 per cent of GDP, still above what is considered to be sustainable. Central Government debt (mainly medium- and long-term in nature) has been rising in order to meet the deficit requirements and is now around 71 per cent of GDP. The Indonesian budget deficit targeted for 2003 was revised upward somewhat, from 1.8 to 1.9 per cent of GDP. Revenues from the oil and gas industry rose as a result of higher oil prices; there was a slower increase in non-oil and gas revenues. Expenditure, including that on development projects, has lagged, owing in part to delays in the release of spending authority to project management units. Meanwhile, lower interest payments also helped to reduce public outlays. Fiscal consolidation will be given priority in 2004, with a planned budget deficit of only 1.2 per cent of GDP. Reforms in tax and customs administration should lead to greater revenue collections in the non-oil and gas sector and, on the expenditure side, expenditure on fuel subsidies should decline as a result of lower oil prices and the reductions in subsidies. As a
II. Macroeconomic performance, issues and policies percentage of GDP, public debt (almost half is of domestic origin) is projected to reach 67 per cent by the end of 2003, well below the postcrisis peak of 100 per cent. However, external financing requirements are projected to increase in 2004 as Indonesia s exit from the IMF loan progamme means that it will no longer be eligible for Paris Club debt relief. The Government intends to rely more heavily on domestic and foreign bond markets to meet its financing needs, as well as to draw down its deposits with the central bank. Expansionary fiscal policies in Singapore and lower revenues, owing to the subdued economy, are expected to widen the government deficit in the fiscal year ending March 2004 to a projected 0.6 per cent of GDP, after recording a small budget deficit equal to 0.1 per cent of GDP the preceding year. In addition, two off-budget packages for SARS relief and to revive the construction industry in 2003, amounting to S$ 830 million, will likely increase the final deficit figure. The decline in revenues occurred despite an increase in the goods and services tax to 4 per cent in 2003; a further increase to 5 per cent is scheduled for early 2004. A high level of economic production in 2002-2003 helped Thailand to record a budget surplus equivalent to 1.2 per cent of GDP in fiscal 2003, as against an originally targeted deficit of 3.3 per cent of GDP, the first surplus since the 1997 financial crisis. Among the contributing factors were strong revenue growth (as a result of higher incomes and expenditure), improved tax collections and falling debt-service costs. Government expenditure was only 90 per cent of the budgeted amount, in part reflecting savings from civil service reorganization. The Government announced a supplementary budget of 135.5 billion baht in November 2003 to eliminate a possible fiscal drag as tax revenues continued to increase sharply. The Government is working on a five-year plan to increase substantially investment in infrastructure, particularly on railways and roads, and on the construction of a new satellite city north of Bangkok. Total public debt amounted to 50 per cent of GDP in mid-2003, well below the Government s 60 per cent limit and down from 54 per cent of GDP at the end of 2002. Sustained, strong economic performance boosted government revenues in Thailand Foreign trade and other external transactions External trade Merchandise exports from Brunei Darussalam, about 28 per cent higher year on year in the first 6 months of 2003 (table II.35), rebounded sharply from the low rates of growth in 2001-2002. Oil and gas exports, mainly to Japan, accounted for nearly 88 per cent of the total, while garments, the other principal export, did not perform well in the face of intensifying competition from China and Viet Nam. Spending on imports was down by nearly 20 per cent year on year in January-June 2003 179
Economic and Social Survey of Asia and the Pacific 2004 Table II.35. Selected South-East Asian economies: merchandise exports and their rates of growth, 2000-2003 Value (millions of US dollars) Exports (f.o.b.) Annual rate of growth (percentage) 2002 2000 2001 2002 2003 (Jan.-Jun.) Brunei Darussalam 3 416 23.8 5.5 2.5 28.3 Indonesia a 57 159 27.7 9.3 1.5 6.8 Malaysia b 93 281 16.1 10.4 6.0 5.4 Philippines c 35 208 8.7 15.6 9.5 1.0 Singapore 125 087 20.2 11.8 2.8 15.4 Thailand c 66 800 19.5 6.9 5.7 16.1 Viet Nam d 16 706 24.0 4.0 11.2 19.2 Sources: IMF, Direction of Trade Statistics (CD-ROM), November 2003; Statistics Indonesia web site <http://www. bps.go.id>, 19 February 2004; Malaysia Economic Planning Unit web site <http://www.epu.jpm.my/bi/stat/kei/ext2001.pdf>, 12 January 2004; Philippines National Statistics Office web site <http://www.census.gov.ph/data/sectordata/tsft.htm>, 13 January 2004; Bank of Thailand web site <http://www.bot.or.th/bothomepage/databank/econdata/thai_key/thai_keye.asp>, 8 December 2003; Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Reports (London, EIU, 2004), various issues; and other national sources. a b c d Figures for 2003 are preliminary (the full year). Figures for 2003 refer to January-November. Figures for 2003 refer to January-October. Figures for 2003 are estimates for the whole year. (table II.36), reflecting a levelling off in the demand for passenger cars. The deficit on the services account has been increasing although Brunei Darussalam s trade surplus remained substantial and there was also a surplus on the income account from investment income. Overall, the surplus on the external current account was estimated at $3.7 billion in 2002; it would likely be substantially higher in 2003. The country is actively pursuing FTAs with the United States and Japan. Exports of garments and textiles from Viet Nam to the United States surged After a fall of nearly 6 per cent year on year in the first half of 2002 was sharply reversed in the second, earnings on merchandise exports by Viet Nam were driven largely by an increase of 38 per cent in the value of exported garments and textiles in the first 11 months of 2003 to grow by 19.2 per cent for the full year. Garment and textile exports, 60 per cent of which go to the United States, accounted for approximately 18 per cent of total exports. Other manufactured exports also performed strongly, particularly computers and electronics products and footwear, which expanded 39 and 21 per cent respectively in January-November 2003 on an annualized basis. Commodity exports such as crude oil and rubber soared along with the strong growth in exports of coffee, cashews, wood products and seafood. 180