.(London Co. v. Dept. of Taxation 322 U.S. 435; 448 (1944) .Harvester Co. v. Dept. of Taxation 322 U.S. 435, 448 (1944)

Transcription

1 2 1 : 4 " " " " 3 1 : () () % % " Income tax if I may be pardoned for saying so is a tax on income 1 Not even the power of this Court can make income of outgo To speak a tax on corporate that is paid out is as self-contradictory income of as to speak of round squares 1 1 (London Co v Dept of Taxation 322 US 435; 448 (1944) 2 Harvester Co v Dept of Taxation 322 US (1944) 241

2 " - "" : W Andrews "A Consumption-Type or Cash Flow Personal Income Tax 87 " ' Harvard Law Review (1974) " Andrews ibid; W Andrews "Fairness and the : Personal Income Tax: A Reply to Professor Warren 88 Harvard Law Review (1975) 947: M Graetz "Implementing a Progressive Consumption Tax" 92 Harvard Law Review (1975) 1575; WA Klein Timing in Personal Taxation 6 Journal of Legal Studies (1977) 461; CE McLure Jr A Consumption- Based Direct Tax for Countries in Transition from Socialism Wayne Law 38Review (1992) 1097 B Fried Fairness and the : Consumption Tax 44 Stanford Law Review (1992) 961; A Gunn The Case for an Income Tax 46 The University of Chicago Law Review (1975) 931; A Warren Fairness and the Consumption-Type or Cash Flow Personal Income Tax 88 Harvard Law Review (1975) 931; A Warren Would a Consumption 'Tax be Fairer than an Imcome Tax? 89 Yale Law Journal)1980) 1081 ; % " ' ;431 " " 26 " '' " "

3 5 [ ] ( :) 1961 " 6 :' SS Surrey & PR McDaniel Tax Expenditures (Cambridge MA 1985) 2 6 B Bittker The Tax : Expenditure Budget A Reply to Professors Surrey and Hellmuth : 22 ) ' National Tax Journal (1969) 538: (1997 : CN Mitchell Taxation Retribution and Justice 38 University of Toronto Law Journal (1988) 151 " " " WJ Blum & H Kalven Jr The Uneasy Case for Progressive : " Taxation (Chicago 1953) " : % ) " ( : ;( )

4 " - (11) 32 % " ; 31 % ; " (11)32 % 7 : " ( ) : (1)2 ( :) " 1972 " ( ) : " : 1 " " % ; 21 % ) ' ' " 1989 " ( 1985 " ( ) 20% 17 %

5 : (1) 9900 % 25% " : % : 1 9 " :1 "" 9900 " [ ]" : 237 ( ) 3 " 9 245

6 " % : 3 17 % ' 164/56 " : " ;1801 " ' 190/61 " ;219 " ' 349/72 (") " ;139 " " ' 208/67 (") 273 " 1987 " ( ) " 9000 " " 4800 ) ( () " The certainty of what each individual ought to pay :' is in taxation a matter of so great importance that a very considerable degree of inequality it appears I believe from the experience of nations is not near so great an evil as a very small degree of uncertainty A Smith An Inquiry into the Narute and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (New York 1937)

7 2 14 %? 15 % 1980 " ;232 " ' 527/75 (") " : " ;310 " ' 185/90 (") " 29/93 (") " ;235 " ' 2142/92 % " ()181 % ( ) ' " % % % ' ' % % ' 118/90 (') " % ) 122 " ( " 2088 " 5 ' " " " 545/

8 " - : 16? : : % : : (1) % " " ( ) %

9 " " = "" : " " " " " 3 (2)2 % (" ") RM Haig "The Concept of Income" The Federal : Income Tax (RM Haid ed New York 1921) chap I; HC Simons Personal Income Taxation (Chicago 1938) 50 % " 100 " 1000 ( 6%) " 60 (10% ) % 40% (3 ) 10% "

10 " - : 3 : () 3" " 9900 (1) ;1987 " ( ) " 9900 (2) (1) ;(1)2 () " " " ( ) ( :) 1987 " " = : (9900/2500)x : ( ) ( ) 250

11 : " " " " " 19 : 198 " ' " 197/76 " " : "

12 " - 4 % : ' 181 '181 () '181" 31 % ( ) (11)32 % [ ] [ ] ;90% ()3 % (1 45% (2 ' ' % % % % () () ()3 % '181 '181 % % % % ; " 20 ; 175 () " 48 % (48 %)

13 21 '181 % : % '181 % 22 : ()181 % ) ( ) % (

14 " % J Tiley : Taxation of Employment Income Cost of Providing Fringe Benefits [1991] Cambridge Law Journal 49 " " W Popkin The Taxation of : Employee Fringe Benefits 22 Boston College Law Review (1981) : " " ' ' : ' ;231 (1993 : ) [ ] ' ; (1992 ) (3) " ;308 " 5 ' " ' 239/88 "

15 " 27 " 28 : " '181 % " ) % ( " " '181 % 29 " " 30 "[ ] 312 ' ' " ' 239/88 (") " 309 ' " " ' 121/91 (') " " ' " 36/87 ( ) " " : % % '' [ ] ' " ' 57/87 " " "

16 " % ; ; " : 181 % 181 % " ' " 738/73 (") " " 131 AC Pigou A Study in Public Finance (London 1947) 55; JA Hausman : "Labor Supply" How Taxes Affect Economic Behavior (HJ Aaron & JA Pechman eds Washington DC 1981) 27 28; RA Musgrave & PB Musgrave Public Finance in Theory and Practice (5th ed New York 1989) ' (5 ) ;277 Fried supra note 4 at p : Blum & Kalven supra note 6 at pp

17 ; 34 3 % % % % 35 30% 50% 3 50% 50% 30% 70% (1)()92 % (2)()92 % " " ' R Schmalbeck "Income Averaging after Twenty Years: A ;531 Failed Experiment in Horizontal Equity" (1984) Duke Law Journal

18 " % 37 ()3 % % ( ) % % % % ; 38 3 ' " 533/89 " ;415 " " ' /93 " 376 (3) " 3 % 247/63 " 82/86 " ; 3 ;2713 " ' ' ; 1 2 " " ' ;103 " 1 " ' " " " 145 " : (180 ' " ") [ ] "

19 39 " " % 9900 : 40 % " " " " Surrey & Mcdaniel supra note 5 at pp 2 6 : 32 [ ] [ ] " 181 % "[ ]

20 " - % % ( ) 60% 43 61% % ( ) ;1975 " (22 ') " ( ) " % % 40% 35% % + (25% x 60%) = 61%

21 44 36% 61% 50% 60% 1 14 " 45 " 140 ( :) 1959 " 46 25% 10% 2 " 1 47 " %

22 " - 48 Fringe Benefit Tax 49 Fringe Benefit Tax 50 Fringe Benefit Tax- 51 % 2 L Kreiser & E Jowitt "Comparative Tax Treatment of Food and Lodging : Provided by Employers in Australia and the United States" 21 The International Tax Journal (1995) 73; P Burgess "Reforming Fringe Benefits Taxation 10 University of New South Wales Law Journal (1987) 241 RJ Vann "Eeneral Principles of : the Toxation fo Fringe Benefits" 10 Sydney Law Reuiew (1988) 90 WD Popkin "The Taxation or Employee Fringe : Benefits" 22 Boston College Law Review (1981) 439; K Adamache & F Sloan "Fringe Benefits: To Tax or not to Tax?" 38 National Tax Journal (1985) 47; A Katx & G Mankiw "How Should Fringe Benefits be Taxed? 38 National Tax Journal (1985) 37; R Hall & A Rabushka The Flat Tax (Stanford 1995) 120 Burgess ibid at p 257 : Fringe Benefit Assessment Act 1986 (11)32 % Burgess supra note 49 at p 245 note 16 " " Kreiser & Jowitt supra note 49at pp 74 75; Burgess ibid at p

23 " 45% ( :) 52 90% 53 50% ; 54 " % " 1000 " " 600 " 600 " 40% " % " 600? ()3 % " ' ' 45 1 " :(' ') ' " ' 38 " ' ; 72 1 " 3 302/67 (') " ; 15 /5 "? 432 " ' "

24 " - " 600 x 40% = " 240 " 400 (" 600) 40% (40%) 67% 67% 40% (" 600) 55 : 56 :"" " (7)32 % [ ] M Graetz "Implementing a Progressive : " Consumption Tax 92 Harvard Law Review (1979) 1575 ( ) 212/69 ") (1992 ) ' ;73 (1) " ' " 1961 ( : t n 100t b = 100 t ; = t n = t b b

25 100% 50% 82% 45% 43% 30% 25% 20% 11% 10% % 100% 47% % 90% 3 57 Fringe Benefit Tax 58 (485%) Fringe Benefit Tax 485% $100 X 485% = $9417 $/100(1 0485) = $ % $ % : Kreiser & Jowitt supra note 79 at pp Kreiser & Jowitt ibid ibid : 181 %

26 " - ; "" ()28 % 61 ()28 % '181 % '181 % : % % ()28 % 181 % ()28 % 2 % ()28 % % % ()28 % % ()28 2 % "" ' ;Eisner v Macomber 252 US 189 (1920) : 101/83 " ; " " ' 1350/65 (") " ;18 " ' 361 " 7 " ' " ' " 58 /

27 "" '181 % '181 % ()28 % : '181 % 118 ()3 % " '181 % % " % "" '48 % " (1) " 128/75 " ;424 " " ' 615/85 " ' 335/79 " ;557 (1) " " ' ' 4 " 314/67 " ;44 " " ;15 " 1 " ' 1018/69 (") " ;748 (2) " " 4 ; " (118 ')

28 " '48 % 3 64 '181 % "" % " " % " " 67 3 % ; 118 '181 % 68? " " " " ' " 5246/91 " 349 ' 350 ' 62 ()28 %

29 69 70 ) ( :) 1997 " ( " " : 88 % "" 21 % " "?21 % () % 27 : 84/81 (") " : 73/85 (') " ;453 " 5 " ' " 309 " ' "" " 88 % "[ ] " ' '" : 88 % " " 88 %

30 " - "21 % " 21 % : 21 % 17 % "21 % [ ] " ; 21 % 21 % 31 % % 21 % ; 73 " [ ] " 21 % 21 % % "' " (8)17 % % 17 % 21 % : " 31 % ['' ] "[ ] 17 % 17 % (8)17 % 21 % 21 % "21 % [ ] " :? : 21 %? % 6 " " '

31 21 % 75 % (" ") ") (" 9900 % : 76 : " ' (1990) " % 21 % 21 %

32 " - ; (1997 ) " 2 : " : (1) () 25 6 ') " 222 % 88 6 " "" % " : ( 90 "%" " : 88 % "" ; %

33 79 (2) ; ; (3) "[ ] (4) 88 % "" 80 "" 2 % "" "" 88 % "" 3 2 " " ' '" : 1 " ''" 3 (1) "

34 " % 5 % ; 96 % 81 (lock-in effect) 96 % % % % % : % % " % " % " " " % 15% " " 7500 " 3000 "" " ' 96 %" ' ; " " ' "' 96 %" ' ; 25 5 (1991) "' % ' 5 ; 1 4 (1991) ML Fellows "A Comprehensive Attack on Tax Deferral" 88 Michigan : 96 Law Review (1990) 722; D Shakow "Txcation Without Realization: A Proposal for Accrual Taxation 134 University of Pennsylvania Law Review (1986) 111; D Slawson "Taxing as Ordinary Income the Appreciation of Publicly Held Stock" 76 Yale Law Journal (1967) 623; J Strnad "Periodicity and Accretion Taxation: Norms and Implementation" 99 Yale Law Journal (1990)

35 82 " " % 83 :?96 % % 96 % % 85 % 96 % % % (15% x x 4) = " (15% x x 4) = " : 96 % % " 8000 " " " 3000 % % " (2)9 %

36 " - 96 % % 96 % " " " 3000 " " " % " 3500 " " 3000 " 7000 : " x 45% = 1575 " 6 86? : % (11)32 % 344 % : 344 " (2)2 % "[ ] 337 % ( :) 1995 " [ ] 515 " ' " " " / " [ ] : ()163 %

37 : (11)32 % : 32" (10) (1) (11) ; 31 % ; 89 [' ' ] " 90 (2)2 % 344 % (2)2 % [ ] " (11)32 % "[ ] 91 (11)32 % 92 " " ' ' ' ' (11)32 % " '' ' " 525 ' 88 ((8)17 % ) 21 % (2) " ' 3 165/82 "

38 " - 93 ("") 94 :? / "2000 " ' 19 4 " " ' '

39 7 96 ("" ) '64 % 97 ) : ( ' ; 64 % % (1)2 % 1985 " ( ) (1)()64 (2)()64 % : : 1992 " ( ) ;1975 " : 64 % (3)()64 % % : (4)()64 (5)()64 % : 64 % (6)()64 % : % : (7)()

40 " : " '64 % '' " '64 %? "" : 162 " ' 58/87 ( ) " " " ' 169 ' ' 896/90 " 57 /

41 107 "" : " " " " " " " " " " % " " ' 181 '181 " 8 64 % " " (101 ) " x 45%

42 " - '94 % " % 110 " 64 = 52% 25% 32% + (64% x 25%) 50% 111 '94 % 68% % " " CE McLure Jr Must Corporate Income be Taxed Twice? (Washington : ; " " ' ;1979) " ' : 3 " (Imputation System) /4 " " ' % % + (64% x 50%) = 68% % : 424% 94 % 36% + (64% x 10%) 61% 67%

43 () : '94 % 113 () % '94 % : 0 " % " '94 % % " " " % "

44 " - %? " " " " 116 " % " % 117 " " % " " % '94 % % % % " % (" 36000) " " "" 50% "" % 119 ' '" 174 % "

45 " " 10 8% 122 " " " ( ) " " % 6% " 6000 " % " " " 6000 " 9000 ()175 % ()175 % 72000/ = 6%

46 " - " 3000 "" " 3750 % 124 " " " " " " (36%) 126 " " " x " : 46 % % % 46 % 220 % "175 ) ) ; " ( " ( " % : " %

47 " 6000 " : ; % ' %

48 " : ()177 % % '181 % " 175 % " ) ( ) ( 3 ; % : ; %? " (118 ') W Vickrey "Tax Simplification Through Cumulative Averaging" : 34 Law and Contemporary Problems (1969)

49 :? : % ' 20 % 1985 " ( ) % ( ) % " : 5 % ") ()3 ['' ] " ") () 89 (" ") ()16 % (" (" () 15 ()14 (10)9 :

50 " % % " " (1)5 % (3) (1)5 : Fringe Benefit Assessment Act Burgess supra note 49 at p % "" (1)8 % (3)5 %

51 " " 142 : [ ] " " " 1 " % " % % % "? (2)2 % : 1994 " ()31 % " [" ] " 3? ()4 %

52 " - 90% " 47% " " 47% % 45% : 31%? 31% : 43% : " 36% : % : 50% 100% (90%) " 85% " 190 " 190 " 100 " 175 ) 190/1085 = 175 (" 190 " 15 " % 75/

53 148 % 117% " : ()3 % (2)9 % " 90% [' ' ] " : :? 150 % % ()3 % % 36% : 90%? % (2)9 %

54 " ()3 % % ; : 3 : ()3 % ()3 % ' 181 '181 % Fringe Benefit Tax 294

55 152 [ ] " : 153 " " WJ Keller Tax Incidence: A General : Equilibrium Approach (Amsterdam 1980); HJ Aaron & JA Pechman (eds) How Taxes Affect Economic Behavior (Washington DC 1981) : RH Coase "The Problem of Social Cost 3 Journal of Law and Economics (1960) 1 RA Posner "The Ethical and Political Basis : of the Efficiency Norm in Common Law Adjudication" 8 Hofstra Law Review (1980) 487; R Dworkin Is Wealth a Value? 9 Jowrnal fo Legal Study (1980) 185; RA Posner Economic Anolysis of Low (Boston-Toronto 1986); RA Posner The Value of Wealth: A Comment on Dworkin and Kronman 9 Journal of Legal Studies (1990) 243; RS Markovits A Constructive Critique of the Traditional Use of the Concept of The Effect of a Choice on Allocative (Economic) Efficiency : Why the Kaldor-Hicks Test the Coase Theorum and Virtually all Law-and-Economics Welfare Arguments are Wrong (1993) ' 5 ;University of Illinois Law Review '

56 " " " (118 ') :