CS- PROFESSIOANL- FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT COST OF CAPITAL

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1 CS- PROFESSIOANL- FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT COST OF CAPITAL AUTHOR SPEAKS All business will require investment of capital. This capital comes with an expected price to pay. E.g. Equity shareholders expect dividend and capital appreciation. Debt owners expect regular and timely payment of interest and repayment of capital at maturity. So this chapter will tell us how to calculate cost of various types of capital. The overall cost of capital is very vital as it is benchmark for rate of return. In other words, minimum that much has to be generated by business. Hence this chapter lays down the fundamentals of financial management in your mind. Concept Cost of capital refers to the opportunity cost of making a specific investment. It is the rate of return that could have been earned by putting the same money into a different investment with equal risk. Thus, the cost of capital is the rate of return required to persuade the investor to make a given investment. The term cost of capital refers to the minimum rate of return a firm must earn on its investments. This is in consonance with the firm s overall object of wealth maximization. Cost of capital is a complex, controversial but significant concept in financial management. The following definitions give an idea regarding the concept of Cost of Capital Hamption J.: The cost of capital may be defined as the rate of return the firm requires from investment in order to increase the value of the firm. James C. Van Horne: The cost of capital is a cut-off rate for the allocation of capital to investments of projects. It is the rate of return on a project that will leave unchanged the market price of the stock. Soloman Ezra: Cost of Capital is the minimum required rate of earnings or the cut-off rate of capital expenditure.

2 It is clear from the above definitions that the cost of capital is that minimum rate of return which a firm is expected to earn on its investments so that the market value of its share is maintained. We can also conclude from the above definitions that there are three basic aspects of the concept of cost of capital: i) Not a cost as such: In fact the cost of capital is not a cost as such, it is the rate of return that a firm requires to earn from its projects. ii) It is the minimum rate of return: A firm s cost of capital is that minimum rate of return which will at least maintain the market value of the share. iii) It comprises of three components: K=rf +b+f Where, k=cost of capital; rf = return at zero risk level: b = premium for business risk, which refers to the variability in operating profit (EBIT) due to change in sales. f = premium for financial risk which is related to the pattern of capital structure. IMPORTANCE OF COST OF CAPITAL: The cost of capital is very important in financial management and plays a crucial role in the following areas: i) Capital budgeting decisions: The cost of capital is used for discounting cash flows under Net Present Value method for investment proposals. So, it is very useful in capital budgeting decisions. ii) iii) Capital structure decisions: An optimal capital structure is that structure at which the value of the firm is maximum and cost of capital is the lowest. So, cost of capital is crucial in designing optimal capital structure. Evaluation of financial performance: Cost of capital is used to evaluate the financial performance of top management. The actual profitability is compared to the expected and actual cost of capital of funds and if profit is greater than the cost of capital the performance nay be said to be satisfactory.

3 iv) Other financial decisions: Cost of capital is also useful in making such other financial decisions as dividend policy, capitalization of profits, making the rights issue etc. The return an investor receives on a company security is the cost of that security to the company that issued it. A company's overall cost of capital is a mixture of returns needed to compensate all creditors and stockholders. This is often called the weighted average cost of capital, and refers to the weighted average costs of the company's debt and equity. Why It Matters: Cost of capital is an important component of business valuation work. Because an investor expects his or her investment to grow by at least the cost of capital, it can be used as a discount rate to calculate the fair value of an investment's cash flows. Investors frequently borrow money to make investments and analysts commonly make the mistake of equating cost of capital with the interest rate on that money. It is important to remember that cost of capital is not dependent upon how and where the capital was raised. Put another way, cost of capital is dependent on the use of funds, not the source of funds. CLASSIFICATION OF COST OF CAPITAL: Cost of capital can be classified as follows: i) Historical Cost and Future Cost: Historical costs are book costs relating to the past, while future costs are estimated costs act as guide for estimation of future costs. ii) iii) Specific Costs and Composite Costs: Specific cost is the cost of a specific source of capital, while composite cost is combined cost of various sources of capital. Composite cost, also known as the weighted average cost of capital, should be considered in capital and capital budgeting decisions. Explicit and Implicit Cost: Explicit cost of any source of finance is the discount rate which equates the present value of cash inflows with the present value of cash outflows. Implicit cost also known as the opportunity cost is the opportunity foregone in order to take up a particular project. For example, the implicit cost of retained earnings is the rate of return available to shareholders by investing the funds elsewhere.

4 iv) Average Cost and Marginal Cost: An average cost is the combined cost or weighted average cost of various sources of capital. Marginal cost refers to the average cost of capital of new or additional funds required by a firm. It is the marginal cost which should be taken into consideration in investment decisions. Problems in determination of cost of capital: i) Conceptual controversy regarding the relationship between cost of capital and capital structure is a big problem. ii) Controversy regarding the relevance or otherwise of historic costs or future costs in decision making process. iii) Computation of cost of equity capital depends upon the excepted rate of return by its investors. But the quantification of expectations of equity shareholders is a very difficult task. iv) Retained earning has the opportunity cost of dividends forgone by the shareholders. Since different shareholders may have different opportunities for reinvesting dividends, it is very difficult to compute cost of retained earnings. v) Whether to use book value or market value weights in determining weighted average cost of capital poses another problem. EXAMPLES OF COST OF CAPITAL Let's assume Company A is considering whether to renovate its office premises. The renovation will cost Rs.50 million and is expected to save Rs.10 million per year over the next 5 years. There is some risk that the renovation will not save Company A, a full Rs.10 million per year. Alternatively, Company A could use the Rs.50 million to buy equally risky 5-year bonds in ABC Co., which return 12% per year. Because the renovation is expected to return 20% per year (Rs.10,000,000 / Rs.50,000,000), the renovation is a good use of capital, because the 20% return exceeds the 12% required return A could have got by taking the same risk elsewhere. The return an investor receives on a company security is the cost of that security to the company that issued it. A company's overall cost of capital is a

5 mixture of returns needed to compensate all creditors and stockholders. This is often called the weighted average cost of capital, and refers to the weighted average costs of the company's debt and equity. Cost of Debt Debt is the cheapest form of long-term debt from the company s point of view as: It s the safest form of investment from the point of view of creditors because they are the first claimants on the company s assets at the time of its liquidation. Likewise they are the first to be paid their interest. Another, more important reason for debt having the lowest cost is the tax-deductibility of interest payments. i.e. Interest is allowed to be debited to Profit and Loss account due to which taxable income and consequently tax is also reduced. Cost of Debt It is the interest rate which equates the present value of the expected future receipts with the cost of the project. The present value of tax-adjusted interest costs plus repayments of the principal is equated with the amount received at the time the loan is consummated. In simple words, present value of cash outflow on account of interest and repayment is equated with the cash inflow received today by way of loan. For irredeemable debt Kd = Interest. Net Funds received Post Tax Cost of Debt Cost of debt is the after-tax cost of long-term funds through borrowing. Net cash proceeds are the funds actually received from the sale of security. Flotation cost is the total cost of issuing and selling securities. Cost of perpetual/irredeemable debt For irredeemable debt Kd = Interest (1 tax rate) Net Funds received Example:

6 Cost of Irredeemable Debentures: Borrower Ltd. issued 10,000, 10% Debentures of Rs. 100 each on 1st April. The cost of issue was Rs. 25,000. The Company s tax rate is 35%. Determine the cost of debentures if they were issued (a) at par (b) at a premium of 10% and (c) at a discount of 10% Particulars Par Premium Discount Gross Proceeds 10, = 10, = 10,000 90= 10,00,000 11,00,000 9,00,000 25,000 25,000 25,000 Less: Cost of Issue Net Proceeds Interest at 10% Less: Tax at 35% Net Outflow Kd = Interest (after tax) Net Proceeds 9,75,000 1,00,000 35,000 65, % 10,75,000 1,00,000 35,000 65, % 8,75,000 1,00,000 35,000 65, % Cost of redeemable debt When the debt has to be repaid after a certain period of time the denominator should be the average liability. E.g. Suppose company issues debenture at Rs. 100 and repays at a premium of Rs. 10 i.e. at 110 after 5 years, then average liability can simply be calculated as /2 = 105. In the numerator, we find costs of two types, one is annual interest cost, as usual. In addition to that, the loss of Rs. 10 on account of excess repayment is to be amortised over 5 years of life of the debenture equally. E.g. Rs.10/5 years= 2 So the formula can be seen this way. Cost of debt = Interest (1- tax) + Avg. Premium on Red Average Liability

7 Example of Cost of Redeemable Debentures Debenture Ltd issued 10,000, 10% Debentures of Rs. 100 each, redeemable in 10 years time at 10% premium. The cost of issue was Rs. 25,000. The Company s Income Tax Rate is 35%. Determine the cost of debentures if they were issued (a) at par (b) at a premium of 10% and (c) at a discount of 10%. Nos. Particulars Par Premium Discount 1. Gross Proceeds 10, , ,000 90= Cost of Issue (Floatation cost) Net Proceeds = (1 2) Redemption Value (Face Value+10% premium) Average Liability (RV+NP) (2) = (4+3) 2 Premium on Redemption = RV NP Avg Premium on Redemption p.a. = (6) 10 yrs. Interest payable at 10% of Face Value After Tax Interest at 65% (Since Tax = 35%) Average Annual Payout = (7+9) Interest(after tax) + Avg Premium on Red Kd = Average Liability 10,00,000 25,000 9,75,000 11,00,000 10,37,500 1,25,000 12,500 1,00,000 65,000 77, % 11,00,000 25,000 10,75,000 11,00,000 10,87,500 25,000 2,500 1,00,000 65,000 67, % 9,00,000 25,000 8,75,000 11,00,000 9,87,500 2,25,000 22,500 1,00,000 65,000 87, % Note: Cost of Debt will not be equal to the Interest Rate on Debt. This is due to the following reasons (a) Tax-Saving Effect. i.e greater the expenditure debited to Profit and Loss A/c. lesser will be the tax paid. (b) Issue at Premium/Discount. (c) Expenses of Issue and difference between Face Value and Net Proceeds is also considered as expense to be debited to Profit and Loss A/c (d) Redemption at premium and additional amount payable also signifies expense to be written off over number of years life of the scrip

8 Alternative Modes of Debt Company is considering raising funds of about Rs. 100 Lakhs by one of two alternative methods, viz. 14% Term Loan and 13% Non-Convertible Debentures. The term loan option would attract no major accidental cost. The Debentures would be issued at a discount of 2.5% and would involve cost of issue Rs. 1 lakh. Advice the company as to the better option based on effective cost of capital. Assume a tax rate of 50%. (information in Rs. Lakhs) Mode Term Loan Debentures Gross Realisation X 97.5%=97.50 Less: Cost of Issue Net Proceeds Interest Payable at 14% and 13% Interest (1- tax rate)=annual Payout Effective Kd Interest (after tax) / Net 7% 6.74% Proceeds Ranking II I Note: Based on Effective cost of debt Kd, Debentures can be preferred. But net realisation is only Rs Lakhs. If fund requirement of Rs. 100 Lakhs is considered as the base, the Face Value of Debentures to be issued. [Rs. 100 Lakhs (Net Proceeds) + 1 Rs. 1 Lakh (Cost of Issue)]/97.5% (issued at a discount). Hence, Face Value of Debentures issued Rs Lakhs approximately. Effective Cost of Debentures in that case = 6.73%. Cost of Preference Capital They are a hybrid security between debt and equity. The shareholders are paid a dividend yearly. Though, this payment is not tax-deductible but the company is required to make payments; since, if it does not pay, it can t pay dividends to the equity holders. Also, preference dividend, if unpaid, gets accumulated over years. Preference shares may be redeemable/irredeemable. (now irredeemable preference shares are not allowed. Have to be redeemed in maximum 10 years) Cost of preference share capital Kp is the annual preference share dividend Pref Div. Net Proceeds from the sale of preference shares

9 Cost of Irredeemable Preference Shares This cost is as good as cost of irredeemable debt as explained above. The primary distinction between the two is the tax saving was effective in case of interest cost, which is not the case with the cost of preference. In fact, in present Indian context, it is Dividend Distribution Tax (DDT) or Corporate Dividend Tax (CDT) at 15% will also be paid in addition of payment of Dividend by an Indian domestic corporate. In such a scenario, cost of preference is Pref Div (1 + CDT)/Net Proceeds Example: Preferred Ltd issued 30,000, 15% Preference Shares of Rs. 100 each. The cost of issue was Rs. 30,000. Determine the cost of Preference Capital if shares are issued (a) at par (b) at a premium of 10% and (c) at a discount of 10%. Particulars Par Premium Discount Gross Proceeds 30, = 30, = 30, = Less : Cost of Issue 30,00,000 30,000 33,00,000 30,000 27,00,000 30,000 Net Proceeds 29,70,000 32,70,000 26,70,00 Preference Dividend 15% 4,50,000 4,50,000 4,50,000 Preference Dividend Kp = Net proceeds 15.15% 13.76% 16.85% B. Cost of Redeemable Preference Shares. It works as good as cost of redeemable debt, with the only difference that there is no tax advantage on preference dividend. Preferential Ltd. issued 30,000, 15% Preference Shares of Rs. 100 each, redeemable at 10% premium after 20 years. Issue Management Expenses were Rs. 30,000. Find out cost of Preference Capital if shares are issued (a) at par (b) at a premium of 10% and (c) at a discount of 10%.

10 Nos. Particulars Par Premium Discount 1. Gross Proceeds (30,000 shares X Issue Price) 30,00,000 30,00,000 30,00, Cost of Issue 30,000 30,000 30, Net Proceeds = (1 2) Redemption Value (Face Value+10% premium) Average Liability (RV+NP) (2) = (4+3) 2 29,70,000 32,70,000 26,70,000 33,00,000 33,00,000 33,00,000 31,35,000 32,85,000 29,85, Premium on Redemption = RV NP Avg Premium on Redemption p.a./20 yrs. Dividend at 15% of Face Value Average Annual Payout = (7+8) Kp = 9 : 5 3,30,000 16,500 4,50,000 4,66, % 30,000 1,500 4,50,000 4,51, % 6,30,000 31,500 4,50,000 4,81, % Cost of Equity Capital (Ke) K e is defined as the minimum rate of return that a firm must earn on the equity-financed portion of an investment project in order to leave unchanged the market price of the shares. In other words, this has to be earned by the company as a benchmark. It is the rate at which investors discount the expected dividends of the firm to determine its share value. The two approaches to measure ke are i. Dividend valuation approach or Gordon s Dividend Growth Model and ii. Capital Asset Pricing Model. (CAPM approach)

11 This is most difficult and controversial cost to work out. The cost of equity capital is higher than that of preference and debt because of greater uncertainty of receiving dividends and repayment of principal at the end. 1. Dividend valuation approach or Gordon s Dividend Growth Model: It assumes that the value of a share equals the present value of all future dividends that it is expected to provide over an indefinite period. Ke accordingly is defined as the discount rate that equates the present value of all expected future dividends per share with the net proceeds of the sale (or the current market price) of a share. Assumptions of the Dividend Approach 1. The market value of shares depends upon the expected dividends. 2. Investors can formulate subjective probability distribution of dividends per share expected to be paid in various future periods. The initial dividend is greater than Dividend payout ratio is constant. 4. Investors can accurately measure the riskiness of the firm, so as to agree on the rate at which to discount the dividends. Cost of present equity: Investors preference assumption is that all investors prefer the security that provides the highest return for a given level of risk or the lowest risk for a given level of return. That is, investors are risk averse. Risk to which security investment is exposed to are of 2 types: Diversifiable/unsystematic risk: is the portion of the security s risk that is attributable to firm-specific random causes; can be eliminated through diversification. Eg., management capabilities and decisions, strikes, unique government regulations, availability of raw materials, competition.

12 Systematic/Non-diversifiable risk: is the relevant portion of a security s risk that is attributable to market factors that affect all firms; cannot be eliminated through diversification. Eg., interest rate changes, inflation or purchasing power change, changes in investor expectations about the overall performance of the economy and political changes. Since diversifiable risks can be eliminated through diversification, investors should be concerned with only non-diversifiable risks. Market Portfolio Note: CAPM approach is theoretically sound but has limitations: 1. It does not incorporate floatation costs. 2. Difficult to get beta ß values. 3. Poorly diversified investors would be concerned with not only systematic but total risk. So, dividend approach is better. Examples Cost of Equity Dividend Price Approach ABC Ltd has a stable income and stable dividend policy. The average annual dividend payout is Rs. 27 per share (Face Value = Rs. 100). You are required to find out (1) Cost of Equity Capital if Market Price in Year 1 is Rs (2) (2) Expected Market Price in Year 2 if cost of equity is expected to rise to 20% (3) Dividend Payout in Year 2 if the Company were to have an expected market price of Rs. 160 per share, at the existing cost of equity. 1. Ke = Dividend per Share/ Market Pr ice per Share = 27/150 = 18% 2. Ke = Dividend per Share/ Market Pr ice per Share = 27/ MPS = 20% On substitution, MPS=Rs %= Rs. 135 Dividend per Share DPS 3. Ke = = = 18% Market Pr ice per Share Rs. 160

13 On substitution, DPS=Rs % = Rs Cost of Equity Earning Price Approach BCD Ltd has a uniform income that accrues in a four-year business cycle. It has an average EPS of Rs. 25 (per share of Rs. 100) over its business cycle. You are required to find out 1. Cos of Equity Capital if Market Price in Year 1 is Rs Expected Market Price in Year 2 if cost of Equity is expected to rise to 18% 3. EPS in Year 2 if the Company were to have an expected Market Price of Rs. 160 per share, at the existing cost Equity. Earning per Share Rs Ke = = = 16.67% Market per Share Rs. 150 Earning per Share Rs Ke = = = 18%. On substitution, MPS = Rs.25 18% Market per Share MPS = Rs Note: Earnings accrue evenly and hence EPS is uniform at Rs. 25 per share. Earning per Share EPS 3. Ke = = = 16.67%. On substitution, EPS = Market per Share Rs.160 Rs.160 X 16.67% = Rs Cost of Equity Growth Approach CDE Ltd has an EPS of Rs. 90 per Share. Its Dividend Payout Ratio is 40%. Its Earnings and Dividends are expected to grow at 5% per annum. Find out the cost of Equity Capital if its Market Price is Rs. 360 per share. DEF Ltd pays a Dividend of Rs. 2 per share. Its shares are quoted at Rs. 40 presently and investors expect a growth rate of 10% per annum. Calculate (i) Cost of Equity Capital. (ii) Expected Market Price per share if anticipated growth rate is 11%. (iii) Market price if dividend is Rs. 2, cost of capital is 16% and growth rate is 10%.

14 CDE Ltd. Dividend per Share Rs % i) Ke = g (Growth Rate) = % Market Price per Share Rs. 360 DEF Ltd. = = 15% Dividend per Share Rs. 2 Ke = g (Growth Rate) = % Market Price per Share Rs. 40 = 5% + 10% = 15% Dividend per Share Rs. 2 ii) Ke = g. It is given that Ke = 15% = % Market Price per Share MPS On transporting, we have, Rs. 2 / MPS = 15% - 11% = 4%. So, MPS = Rs. 2 4% = Rs. 50 per share. Dividend per Share Rs. 2 iii) Ke = g. It is given that Ke = 16% = % Market Price per Share MPS On transposing, we have, Rs. 2 MPS = 16% - 10% = 6%. So, MPS = Rs. 2 6%=Rs. 33 per Share. Valuation of Equity Share Present Value of Future Dividend Flows D Ltd. is foreseeing a growth rate of 12% per annum in the next two years. The growth rate is likely to be 10% for the third and fourth year. After that, the growth rate is expected to stabilise at 8% per annum. If the last dividend was Rs per Share and the Investor s required rate of return is 16%, determine the current value of Equity Share of the Company. The P.V. factors at 16% are Year

15 P V Factor Value of Equity Share = Present Value of all dividend flows. Year Dividend Discount Rate PV of Dividend 1 Rs % = Rs Rs Rs % = Rs Rs Rs % = Rs Rs Rs % = Rs Rs onwards See Note below = Rs Rs Total Current Value of Equity Share of the Company Rs Note: Computation of Perpetual Dividend received after 4th year i.e. at 8% per annum D (1+ g) 2.27 ( ) Total Dividend = = = Rs (k - g) ( ) Where D = Dividend; g = Growth Rate and K = Cost of Equity Capital Cost of Retained Earnings It may be defined as the opportunity cost in terms of dividends foregone by/withheld from the equity shareholders. i.e. in other words, if the company would have given Reserves as Dividends at what rate of return the same would have been invested by the shareholder. So it envisages opportunity cost of money. Cost of retained earnings is the same as the cost of an equivalent fully subscribed issue of additional shares, which is measured by the cost of equity capital. Retained earnings are dividends withheld, that is, if were in the hands of the investors (shareholders) they could have earned on these by investing somewhere else. The assumption is that the firm is earning at least equal to ke on these retained earnings. So the cost kr is approximately equal to ke (a little less than ke because of floatation costs are not there, kr < ke) Weighted Average Cost of Capital (WACC)

16 i.e. Overall Cost of Capital (k o ) This gives us the overall cost of capital. Weight age is given to the cost of each source of funds by assessing the relative proportion of each source of fund to the total, and is ascertained by using the book value or the market value of each type of capital. The cost of capital of the market value is usually higher than it would be if the book value is used. Steps in Calculation of WACC (Ko) 1. Assigning weights to specific costs. 2. Multiplying the cost of each of the sources by the appropriate weights. 3. Dividing the total weighted cost by the total weights. Weighting can be using marginal or historical weights Why marginal weights? Because it is the new capital being raised for new investment that is important so the weighted cost of new capital is of relevance. Else, projects with costs higher than managerial costs may be accepted, giving negative results and vice-versa. But the problem is that if we go by marginal weighting, we may resort to too much borrowing and accept many projects because of lower cost at the moment. But, at a later date, company may have the problem of raising more finance. Marginal weights ignore long term view. Thus, the fact that today s financing affects tomorrow s costs, is not considered in using marginal weights. Historical weights take a long term view and try to raise financing also in the proportion of existing capital structure considered superior. Historical weights can be divided into book value weights and market value weights. Calculations based on the book value weights are more easy operationally while those based on market values are more sound theoretically since the sale price of securities is going to be more close to the market value. But the problem is how to choose the market value because they fluctuate widely sometimes and almost every day their values are different.

17 Example: Capital Structure (Book Value Based) Debt 30% (Rs.6000) cost kd=8% Preference shares 30% (Rs.6000) cost kp=13% Equity 40% (Rs.8000) cost k=14% Ko=WACC = 30% 8%+30% 13%+40% 14% = 2.4%+3.9%+5.6% = 11.9% Note: ko calculated on the basis of market value is likely to be greater than the one calculated on the basis of book value since market values of equity and preference shares is usually higher than book value and hence their weight is more with respect to debt. Capital Structure (Market Value Based) Debt 25% (Rs.60000) cost kd=8% Preference shares 29.17% (Rs.70000) cost kp=13% Equity 45.83% (Rs ) cost k=14% Total 100% = Ko=WACC = = = = 12.21% Market Value vs. Book Value Weights

18 Market Value sometimes is preferred to Book Value because it represents the true expectations of the investors. However, it suffers from the following limitations: 1. Market Value undergoes frequent fluctuations and have to be normalized; 2.The use of Market Value tends to cause a shift towards larger amounts of equity funds, particularly when additional financing is undertaken. Market Value is more appealing than Book Value as: Market values of securities closely approximate the actual amount to be received from their sale. Costs of specific sources of finance which constitute the capital structure of the firm are calculated using prevalent market prices. Advantages of Book Value weights: 1. The capital structure targets are usually fixed in terms of book value. 2. It is easy to know the book value. 3. Investors are interested in knowing the debt-equity ratio on the basis of book values. 4. It is easier to evaluate the performance of a management in procuring funds by comparing on the basis of book values. Relevant costs closely related to Cost of Capital: 1. Marginal cost of capital: Average cost of new or incremental funds raised by the firm. Marginal Cost tends to increase proportionately as the amount of debt increases. 2. Explicit cost and implicit cost: a) Explicit cost: Explicit cost of any source of finance is the discount rate that equates the present value of the cash inflows that are incremental to the taking of the financial opportunity with the present value of the incremental cash outflows. The explicit cost of a debt would be 0 if it is interest free. The explicit cost of a gift would be 100%. b) Implicit cost: It is the opportunity cost. It is the rate of return associated with the best investment opportunity for the firm and its shareholders that will be foregone if the project presently under

19 consideration by the firm were accepted. It is not concerned with any particular source of finance. The explicit cost includes only the cost of capital to be paid and ignores the other factors such as risk involved, flexibility and leverage characteristics which are adversely affected with an increase in debt contents in its capital structure and these changes imply additional but hidden costs. 3. Future cost and Historical cost We always consider the projects expected internal rate of return and compare it with the expected (future) cost of capital while making capital expenditure decision. Historical costs (past costs) help in predicting the future costs and provide an evaluation of the past performance. 4. Specific cost and Inclusive/Combined/Composite cost of capital a) Specific cost of capital is associated with a specific component of capital structure. b) Inclusive cost of capital is an aggregate of the cost of capital from all sources. In other words, it is WACC. 5. Spot costs and Normalized costs a) Spot costs represent those costs prevailing in the market at a certain time. b) Normalized costs indicate an estimate of cost by some averaging process from which cyclical element is removed. Computation of WACC (a) The Capital Structure of ABC Ltd is Equity Capital Rs. 5 Lakhs; Reserves and Surplus Rs. 2 Lakhs and Debentures Rs. 3 Lakhs. The Cost of Capital before Tax are (a) Equity 18% and (b) Debentures 10%. You are required to compute the Weighted Cost of Capital, assuming a tax rate of 35%. (b) From the following information, compute WACC of BCD Ltd. (Assume Tax = 35%) Debt to Total Funds: 2:5 Preference Capital to Equity Capital: 1:1 Preference Dividend Rate: 15% Interest on Debentures: Rs for half-year. EBIT at 30% of Capital Employed: Rs. 3 Lakhs Cost of Equity Capital is 24%.

20 (c) CDE Ltd has a Debt Equity Ratio of 2:1 and a WACC of 12%. Its Debentures bear interest of 15%. Find out the cost of Equity Capital. (Assume Tax = 35%) (a) WACC of ABC Ltd. Component Amount % Individual Cost in % WACC Debentures 3,00,000 30% Kd = Interest X (100% - Tax Rate) = 10% X (100% - 35%) = 6.5% 1.95% Equity Reserves 5,00,000 2,00,000 50% 20% Ke = 18% Kr = Ke = 18% 9.00% 3.60% Total 10,00,000 Ko = 14.55% Note: If not specified cost of reserves should always be taken as cost of equity. (b) BCD Ltd. EBIT at 30% of Capital Employed = Rs. 3 Lakhs, Capital Employed = Rs. 3 Lakhs / 30% = Rs10,00,000. Debt to Total Funds = 2:5. Hence, Debt = 2/5th of Rs. 10,00,000 = Rs. 4,00,000 Shareholders Funds = balance 3/5th of Rs. 10,00,000 = Rs. 6,00,000 Preference to Equity Capital = 1:1 (i.e. equal). The total of both = Rs. 6,00,000 So, Preference Capital = Equity Capital = 1/2 of Rs. 6,00,000 = Rs. 3,00,000 each. Interest on Debt = Rs. 20,000 2 = Rs. 40,000. Hence Interest Rate = Rs. 40,000 / Rs. 4,00,000 = 10%. WACC is computed as under Component Amount % Individual Cost in % WACC % Debt 4,00,000 40% Kd = Interest X (100% - Tax Rate) = 10% X (100% - 35%) = 6.5% 2.60% Preference Equity 3,00,000 3,00,000 30% 30% Ke = 15% Kr = Ke = 24% 4.50% 7.20% Total 10,00,000 Ko = 14.30% (c) Computation of Cost of Equity of CDE Ltd. Component % Individual Cost in % WACC % Debt Equity 2/3 rd 1/3 rd Kd = Interest X (100% - Tax Rate) = 15% X (100% - 35%) = 9.75% Ke = /3 rd = 16.50% (final balancing figure) 9.75% x 2/3 rd = 6.50% 12% - 6.5% = 5.50% (bal. figure)

21 Total Ko = (given) 12.00% WACC - Book Value & Market Value Proportions-with/without tax. The following information has been extracted from the Balance Sheet of ABC Ltd. as on 31st March Component of capital Amount Rs. In lakhs Equity Share 12% 18% Term Total Capital Debentures Loan ,200 2, Determine the WACC of the Company. It had been paying dividends at a consistent rate of 20% per annum. 2. What difference will it make if the current price of the Rs.100 share is Rs.160? 3. Determine the effect of Income Tax on WACC under both the above situations. (Tax Rate = 40%). 1. Computation of WACC (based on Book Value Proportions and ignoring Tax) Component (a) Proportion Individual Cost WACC Equity Share Capital 12% Debentures 18% Term Loan (b) 4/20 4/20 12/20 (c) Ke = 20% (Dividend Approach) Kd = 12% Kd = 18% (d) = (b) x (c) 4.00% 2.40% 10.80% WACC = Ko = 17.20% Note: 1. Ke = Dividend per Share Equals Market Price per share = Rs Book Value Proportions have been considered in Column (b) above. 2. (a) Computation of WACC (based on Book Value Proportions and ignoring Tax) Component (a) Proportion (b) Individual Cost (c) WACC (d) = (b) x (c)

22 Equity Share Capital 12% Debentures 18% Term Loan Total Rs. 2,240 Lakhs 4/20 4/20 12/20 Ke = = 12.50% Kd = 12% Kd = 18% 2.50% 2.40% 10.80% WACC = Ko = 15.70% 2. (b) Computation of WACC (based on Market Value Proportions and ignoring Tax) Component (a) Proportion (b) Individual Cost (c) WACC (d) = (b) x (c) Equity Capital Rs. 640 lakhs 12% Debentures Rs. 400 lakhs 64/224 40/224 Ke = = 12.50% Kd = 12% 3.57% 2.14% 9.64% 18% Term Loan Rs. 1,200 lakhs 120/224 Kd = 18% Total Rs. 2,240 Lakhs WACC = Ko = 15.35% 3. Effect of Tax Rate of 40% on WACC (a) Computation of WACC with tax (Situation 1 above based on Book Value Proportions) Component (a) Equity Share Capital 12% Debentures 18% Term Loan Proportion (b) 4/20 4/20 12/20 Individual Cost (c) Ke = 20% WACC (d) = (b) x (c) 4.00% Kd = 12% x 60% = 1.44% 7.20% Kd = 18% x 60% = 6.48% 10.80% WACC = Ko = 11.92% The WACC has reduced from 17.20% to 11.92%, due to tax saving effect. (b) Computation of WACC with tax (Situation 2 (a) above based on Book Value Proportions) Component (a) Proportion (b) Individual Cost (c) WACC (d) = (b) x (c)

23 Equity Share Capital 12% Debentures 18% Term Loan 4/20 4/20 12/20 Ke = = 2.50% 12.50% Kd = 12% x 60% = 1.44% 7.20% Kd = 18% x 60% = 6.48% 10.80% WACC = Ko = 10.42% The WACC has reduced from 15.70% to 10.42%, due to tax saving effect. (c) Computation of WACC with tax (Situation 2 (b) above based on Market Value Proportions) Component (a) Equity Share Capital Rs. 640 lakhs 12% Debentures Rs. 400 lakhs 18% Term Loan Rs. 1,200 lakhs Total Rs. 2,240 lakhs Proportion (b) 64/224 40/ /224 Individual Cost (c) Ke = = 12.50% WACC (d) = (b) x (c) 3.75% Kd = 12% x 60% = 1.29% 7.20% Kd = 18% x 60% = 5.78% 10.80% WACC = Ko = 10.64% The WACC has reduced from 15.35% to 10.64%, due to tax saving effect. WACC Financing Decision of Projects XYZ Co. has a capital structure of 30% debt and 70% equity. The company is considering various investment proposals costing less than Rs. 30 Lakhs. The company does not want to disturb its present capital structure. The cost raising the debt and equity are as follows: Project Cost Cost of Debt Cost of Equity Upto Rs. 5 Lakhs Above Rs. 5 Lakhs and upto Rs. 20 Lakhs Above Rs. 20 Lakhs and upto Rs. 40 Lakhs Above Rs. 40 Lakhs and upto Rs. 1 Crore 9% 10% 11% 12% 13% 14% 15% 15.55% Assuming the tax rate is 50%, compute the cost of two projects A and B, whose fund requirements are Rs. 8 Lakhs and Rs. 22 Lakhs respectively. If the project

24 are expected to yield after tax return of 11%, determine under what conditions if would be acceptable. Particulars % of Debt and Equity K d (Debt)% 30% K e (Equity)% 70% WACC = Ko Upto 5 Lakhs 9 50% = 4.5% 13% %+13 70% = 10.45% Above 5 Lakhs upto 20 Lakhs 10 50% = 5.0% 14% %+14 70% = 11.30% Above 20 Lakhs upto 40 Lakhs 11 50% = 5.5% 15% %+15 70% = 12.15% Above 40 Lakhs upto 1 Crore 12 50% = 6.0% 15.55% % % = 12.69% Project Investment WACC Return Decision A B Rs Lakhs Rs Lakhs 11.3% (5L to 20L) 12.15% (20 L to 40 L) 11% 11% ROI < WACC ROI < WACC Decision: If ROI 11%, Project is acceptable only if (a) Project Investment is less than Rs. 5 Lakhs. (b) Fractional Investment is possible on a divisible project Investment is less than Rs. 5 Lakhs. Financing Decision and EPS Maximisation A Company requires Rs. 15 Lakhs for the installation of a new unit, which would yield an annual EBIT of Rs. 2,50,000. The Company s objective is to maximise EPS. It is considering the possibility of Issuing Equity Shares plus raising a debt of Rs. 3,00,000, Rs. 6,00,000 and Rs. 9,00,000. The current Market Price per Share is Rs. 50 which is expected to drop to Rs. 40 per share if the market borrowings were to exceed Rs. 7,00,000. The cost of borrowing are indicated as follows: Level of Borrowing Upto Rs. 2,00,000, Rs. 2,00,000 to Rs. 6,00,000, Rs. 6,00,000 to Rs. 9,00,000, Cost of Borrowing 12% p.a., 15% p.a., 17% p.a.

25 Assuming a tax rate of 50%, work out the EPS and the scheme, which you would recommended to the Company. Statement showing EPS under the different schemes Particulars Scheme I Scheme II Capital Required 15,00,000 15,00,000 Less: Debt Content 3,00,000 6,00,000 Balance Equity Capital required 12,00,000 9,00,000 Market Price per Share Rs. 50 Rs. 50 Number of Equity Shares to be issued 24,000 18,000 (Equity Capital/MPS) Scheme III 15,00,000 9,00,000 6,00,000 Rs ,000 Profitability Statement Scheme I Scheme II Scheme III EBIT 2,50,000 2,50,000 2,50,000 Less: Interest on Debt First Rs. 2,00,000 at 12% Next Rs. 4,00,000 at 15% Balance at 17% 24,000 15,,000-24,000 60,000-24,000 60,000 51,000 Total Interest 39,000 84,000 1,35,000 EBIT 2,11,000 1,66,000 1,15,000 Less : Tax at 50% 1,05,500 83,000 57,500 EAT 1,05,500 83,000 57,500 Earnings Per Share (EPS) = EAT No. of shares Average Interest Rate 13% 14% 15% = Total Interest Debt ROCE = EBIT Capital Employed 16.67% 16.67% 16.67% Conclusion: EPS is maximum under Scheme II and is hence preferable. Leverage Effect: Use of Debt Funds and Financial Leverage will have a favourable effect only if ROCE > Interest rate. ROCE is 16.67% and hence upto 15% interest rate, i.e. Scheme II, use of debt will have favourable impact on EPS and ROCE. However, when interest rate is higher at 17%, financial leverage will have negative impact and hence EPS falls from Rs to Rs Funding Pattern EPS Maximisation

26 The following figures are made available to you Particulars Rs. Net Profits for the year 18,00,000 Less : Interest on Secured Debentures at 15% p.a. (Debentures were issued 3 months after commencement of the year 1,12,500 PBT 16,87,500 Less : Tax at 35% and Dividend Distribution Tax 8,43,750 PAT 8,43,750 Number of Equity Shares of Rs. 10 each 1,00,000 Market Quotation of Equity Shares Rs per share The Company has accumulated revenue reserves of Rs. 12 Lakhs. It is examining a project requiring Rs. 10 Lakhs Investment, which will earn at the same rate as the funds already employed. You are informed that a Debt-Equity Ratio (Debt [Debt + Equity]) above 60% will cause the PE ratio to come down by 25%. The interest rate on additional borrowing (above the present Secured Debentures) will cost the Company 300 basis points (3%) more than their current borrowing on Secured Debentures. You are required to compute the probable price of the Equity Shares if the additional investment were to be raised by way of (a) Loans or (b) Equity. 1. Computation of Capital Employed and Debt Equity Ratio Particulars Present Loan Option Equity Option Debt 1,12,500x12/9 15% = Rs. 10,00,000 Rs. 10,00,000 + Rs. 10,00,000 = Rs. 20,00,000 (as per present situation) Rs. 10,00,000 Equity Capital 1,00,000 shares x Rs. 10 = Rs. 10,00,000 (as present) Rs. 10,00,000 (See Note) 10,91,160 Reserves (given) Rs. 12,00,000 (given) Rs. 12,00,000 Rs. 12,00,000 + Rs. 9,08,840 = Rs. 21,08,840 Total Funds Employed Rs. 32,00,000 Rs. 42,00,000 Rs ,000 Debt Equity Ratio = 31.25% = 47.62% = 23.81%

27 Present Market Value per Share = Rs Hence, additional funds of Rs. 10,00,000 will be raised by issue of shares at an issue price of Rs per Share. Number of Equity Sharess to be issued = Rs. 10,00,000 Rs per Share = 9,116 Shares of Rs. 10 each, issued at a premium of (Rs Rs ) Rs per Share. Hence Additional Equity Share Capital = Rs. 91,160 and Additional Reserves i.e. Securities Premium = Rs. 9,08,840 (9,116 Shares Rs approx.) EBIT at 56.25% Less: Interest next year Debt Loans 10,00,000 x 18% 2. Computation of Profits and MPS Particulars Present Loan Option Equity Option 18,00,000 23,62,500 1,12,500 1,50,00-1,80,000 23,62,500 1,50,000 - EBIT Less : Tax at 35% 16,87,500 5,90,625 20,32,500 7,11,375 22,12,500 7,74,375 EAT 10,96,875 13,21,125 14,38,125 Number of Equity Shares EPS PE Ratio = MPS EPS Hence, Market Price (given) = 1,00, = 10 Rs (given) = 1,00, Rs (given) = 1,09, Rs Note: For interest calculation purposes, 100 basic point = 1% interest. Hence, 300 basis points means 3%. So, Interest Rate on additional borrowings is 15% +3% = 18%. Corporate Income Tax at 35% only is relevant. Dividend Distribution Tax is irrelevant for computing EPS, since dividend distribution is only an appropriation of profits. Since Debt-Equity Ratio has not increased beyond 60%, PE Ratio will not be effected and will remain the same at 10, in all situations. WACC and Marginal WACC Computation XYZ Ltd. (in 40% Tax bracket) has the following book value capital structure Equity Capital (in shares of Rs. 10 each, fully paid-up at par) 11% Preference Capital (in shares of Rs. 100 each, fully paidup at par) Rs. 15 Crores Rs. 1 Crore

28 Retained Earnings 13.5% Debentures (of Rs. 100 each) 15% Term Loans Rs. 20 Crores Rs. 10 Crores Rs Crore The next expected dividend on Equity Shares is Rs per share. Dividends are expected to grow at 7% and the Market price per share is Rs. 40. Preference Stock, redeemable after ten years, is currently selling at Rs. 75 per share. Debentures, redeemable after 6 years, are selling at Rs. 80 per debenture. Required: 1. Compute the present WACC using (a) Book Value Proportions and (b) Market Value Proportions. 2. Compute the weighted Marginal Cost of Capital if the Company raises Rs. 10 Crores next year, given the following information The amount will be raised by equity and debt in equal proportions. The Company expects to retain Rs. 1.5 Crores earnings next year. The additional issue of Equity Shares will result in the net price per share being fixed at Rs. 32. The Debt capital raised by way of Term Loans will cost 15% for the first Rs. 2.5 Crores and 16% for the next Rs. 2.5 Crores. 1. Computation of Cost of Equity under Dividend Approach Present Cost of Equity under Dividend Approach: Dividend per Share Rs. 3.60% i) Ke = g (Growth Rate) = % Market Price per Share Rs = 9% + 7% = 16.00% Revised Cost of Equity under Dividend Approach : Dividend per Share Rs Ke = g (Growth Rate) = % Market Price per Share Rs = 11.25% + 7% = 18.25%

29 2. Computation of Cost of Preference Share Capital Preference Dividend + (RV - Net Proceeds) N [11 + (100 75) 10] = = 15.43% (RV + Net Proceeds) 2 [ ] 2 Present Cost of Debentures: 3. Computation of Cost of Debt Preference Dividend+(RV - Net Proceeds) N [13.5x60%+(100-80) 6] = = 1270% (RV + Net Proceeds) 2 [ ] 2 Present Cost of Term Loans = Kd = Interest (100% Tax Rate) = 15% (100% 40%) = 9.00%. Cost of Additional Debt for first Rs Crores = Interest (100% Tax Rate) = 15% 60% = 9.00% Cost of Additional Debt for next Rs Crores = Interest (100% Tax Rate) =16% 60% = 9.60%. 4. Computation of Present WACC base on Book Value Proportions Particulars Amount Proportion Individual Cost WACC % Equity Capital Preference Capital Retained Earnings Debentures Loans Rs. 15 Crores Rs. 1 Crore Rs. 20 Crore Rs. 10 Crore Rs Crore 15/58.5 1/ / / / % 15.43% 16.00% 12.70% 9.00% 4.10% 0.26% 5.47% 2.17% 1.92% Total Rs Crores 100% Ko = 13.92% 5. Computation of Present WACC base on Market Value Proportions Particulars Amount Proportion Individual Cost Equity Capital Rs. 60 Crores 60/ % Preference Rs Crore 0.75/ % Capiral Included in Market Retained Capital Value Earnings WACC % 11.82% 0.14% Debentures Loans Rs. 8 Crore Rs Crore 8/ / % 9.00% 1.25% 1.38%

30 Total Rs Crores 100% 14.59% 6. Computation of Marginal Cost of Capital Marginal Cost of Capital is computed in different segments as under For the first Rs. 1.5 Crores of Equity and Debt each since retained earnings are Rs. 1.5 Cores. For the next Rs. 1 Crores of Debt and Equity each since cost of debt changes beyond Rs. 2.5 Crores debt. For the balance Rs. 2.5 Crores of Debt and Equity each. Particu lars First 1.5 Crores Next Rs. 1.5 Crores Balance Amount Debt Equity Total Individual Cost Rs. 1.5 Rs. 1.5 Rs. 3 Kd = 9.00% Crores Crores Crores Ke = 16.00% Rs. 1 Rs. 1 Rs. 2 Kd = 9.60% Crore Crore Crores Ke = 18.25% Rs. 2.5 Crores Rs. 2.5 Crores Rs. 5 Crores Kd = 9.60% Ke = 18.25% Marginal WACC (9.00% x 50%) + (16.00% x 50%) = 12.50% (9.60% x 50%) + (18.25% x 50%) = 13.93% (9.60% x 50%) + (18.25% x 50%) = 13.93% Computation of Cost of Debt, Equity and WACC R & G Co. has following capital structure at 31st March 2012, which is considered to be optimum Particulars 13% Debentures 11% Preference Share Capital Equity Share Capital (2,00,000 Shares) Amount (in Rs.) 3,60,000 1,20,000 19,20,000 The Company s Share has a current Market Price of Rs per Share. The expected Dividend per Share in the next year is 50 percent of the 2004 EPS. The EPS of last 10 years is as follows. The past trends are expected to continue Year EPS (Rs.) The company can issue 14 percent New Debenture. The Company s Debenture is currently selling at Rs. 98. The New Preference Issue can be sold at a net

31 price of Rs. 9.80, paying a dividend of Rs per share. The Company s marginal tax rate is 50%. 1. Calculate the After Tax Cost (a) of new Debt and new Preference Share Capital, (b) of ordinary Equity, assuming new Equity comes from Retained Earnings. 2. Calculate the Marginal Cost of Capital. 3. How much can be spent for Capital Investment before new ordinary share must be sold? Assuming that retained earning available for next year s Investment are 50% of 2009 earnings. 4. What will be Marginal Cost of Capital(cost of fund raised in excess of the amount calculated in part (3) if the Company can sell new ordinary shares to net Rs. 20 per share? The cost of Debt and of Preference Capital is constant. 1. Computation of Cost of Additional Capital (component wise) 1.(a) After Tax 6.63% Cost of New Debt 1.(a) After Tax Cost of New = Preference Share Capital 1.(b) After Tax Cost of Ordinary Equity Interest x Tax Rate Net Proceeds of Issue Preference Dividend Net Proceeds of Issue 14 x 50% (Note 1) Rs Rs (DPS + MPS) + g (2.773 x 50% % (Note 2) 12.24% 17.00% Note 1: Since Current 13% Debenture is selling at Rs. 98 (Rs. 100 presuned as Par Value), the Company can sell 14% New Debentures at (14% 98) 13% = Rs approximately. Alternatively, Kd can also be computed as (Rs %) Rs. 98 = 7.14%. Note 2: For computing g i.e. Growth Rate under Realised Yield Method, the past average Growth Rate is at 12%, in the following manner- Year (Rs.) Add Increase % % % % % % % % %

32 Note: % Increase in EPS = Additional EPS Previous Year EPS e.g etc. 2. Marginal Cost of Capital: Since the present Capital Structure is optium the additional funds will be raised in the same ratio in order to maintain the capital structure. Hence, Marginal Cost of Capital is 15.20%, computed as under: Component Amount Proportion Individual Cost WACC % Debt Preference Capital Equity Capital 3,60,000 1,20,00 19,20,000 15% 5% 80% Kd = 6.63% Kp = 12.24% Ke = 17.00% 0.99% 0.61% 13.60% Total 24,00, % WACC = Ko= 15.20% Note: When Kd is taken at 7.14%, Ko will be 15.28% 3. Retained Earnings available for further investments = 50% of 2004 EPS = 50% Rs ,00,000 Shares = Rs. 2,77,300 Hence, amount to be spent before selling new ordinary shares = Rs. 2,77,300 Since Equity is 80% of the total funds employed, the total capital before issuing fresh equity shares = Rs.2,77,300 80% = Rs.3,46, Computation of Revised Marginal Cost of Capital if Equity Issue is made at Rs. 20 per share Revised Cost of Ordinary Equity If MPS (i.e. Issue Price = Rs. 20) = (DPS MPS) + g (2.773 x 50%) + 12% % Component Amount Proportion Individual Cost WACC % Debt Preference Capital Equity Capital 3,60,000 1,20,00 19,20,000 15% 5% 80% Kd = 6.63% Kp = 12.24% Ke = 17.00% 0.99% 0.61% 15.15% Total 24,00, % WACC = Ko= 16.75% Note: When Kd is taken at 7.14%, Revised Ko will be 16.82%.