Handbook of Budgeting

Transcription

1

2

3 Handbook of Budgeting Sixth Edition WILLIAM R. LALLI Editor John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

4 Copyright 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. The fifth edition of this book, titled Handbook of Budgeting, was published in Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey. Published simultaneously in Canada. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) , fax (978) , or on the web at Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) , fax (201) , or online at Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. For general information on our other products and services or for technical support, please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) , outside the United States at (317) or fax (317) Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site at Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data: Handbook of budgeting / [edited by] William R. Lalli. 6th ed. p. cm. Includes index. ISBN (cloth); ISBN (ebk); ISBN (ebk); ISBN (ebk) 1. Budget in business. I. Lalli, William Rea. HG4028.B8H dc Printed in the United States of America

5 Founded in 1807, John Wiley & Sons is the oldest independent publishing company in the United States. With offices in North America, Europe, Asia, and Australia, Wiley is globally committed to developing and marketing print and electronic products and services for our customers professional and personal knowledge and understanding. The Wiley Corporate F&A series provides information, tools, and insights to corporate professionals responsible for issues affecting the profitability of their company, from accounting and finance to internal controls and performance management.

6

7 Contents Foreword Preface xv xvii PART ONE: INTRODUCTION TO THE BUDGETING PROCESS Chapter 1: Integrating The Balanced Scorecard for Improved Planning and Performance Management 3 Overview 3 Elements of a Balanced Scorecard 5 Use of Strategy Maps 11 Scorecard Cascading 12 Bringing It All Together 13 Integrating the Scorecard with Planning and Performance 14 Balanced Scorecard and Annual Planning 15 Continuous Strategic Management with the Scorecard 22 Summary 24 Chapter 2: Strategic Balanced Scorecard Based Budgeting and Performance Management 25 Introduction: Why Most Companies Fail to Implement Their Strategies 25 Why a few Companies Produce Exceptional Results 26 Measure your Strategy with Balanced Scorecard 34 Balanced Scorecard-Based Budgets 37 Performance Management 38 Summary 39 Chapter 3: Budgeting and the Strategic Planning Process 41 Definition of Strategic Planning 41 Planning Cycle 42 Strategic Planning Process: A Dynamic Cycle 44 Situation Analysis 46 Business Direction/Concept 58 Alternative Approaches 61 Operational Plan 62 v

8 vi n Contents Measurement 66 Feedback 66 Contingency Planning 68 Problems in Implementing Formal Strategic Planning Systems 69 Summary 70 Chapter 4: Budgeting and Forecasting: Process Tweak or Process Overhaul? 71 Introduction 71 Survey Methodology 72 Findings: Budgeting Process 72 Findings: Forecasting Process 86 Report Summary 89 Developing a Road Map for Change 90 Chapter 5: The Budget: An Integral Element of Internal Control 93 Introduction 93 The Control Environment 94 Planning Systems 96 Reporting Systems 98 Summary 102 Chapter 6: Relationship Between Strategic Planning and the Budgeting Process 103 Introduction 103 How to Plan 103 The Audience for Whom the Plan Is Designed 104 Strategic Business Planning and Its Role in Budgeting 105 Planning Differences among Small, Medium, and Large Organizations 106 Components of Strategic Planning 107 Management and Organization 108 Market Analysis 110 Formulation of Marketing Strategies 111 Operations Analysis 112 Summary 114 Chapter 7: The Essentials of Business Valuation 115 Introduction 115 Understanding the Valuation Assignment 117 Research and Information Gathering 120 Adjusting and Analyzing the Financial Statements 123 Three Approaches to Valuing a Business 125 Income Approach 125 Market Approach 132 Asset Approach 135 Making Adjustments to Value 136

9 Contents n vii Reaching the Valuation Conclusion 141 Chapter 8: Moving Beyond Budgeting: Integrating Continuous Planning and Adaptive Control 145 Introduction 145 Annual Budgeting Trap 146 Why Some Organizations Are Going Beyond Budgeting 147 Beyond Budgeting: Enabling a More Adaptive Performance Management Process 148 Climbing the Twin Peaks of Beyond Budgeting 152 Beyond Budgeting: Enabling Radical Decentralization 153 Chapter 9: Moving Beyond Budgeting: An Update 161 Introduction 161 Beyond Budgeting Round Table (BBRT) 162 Guardian Industries Corporation 163 PART TWO: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES Chapter 10: Implementing Forecasting Best Practices 169 Introduction 169 Budgeting versus Forecasting 170 Implementing Forecasting Best Practices 170 Forecasting Best Practices: Process 171 Forecasting Best Practices: Organization 174 Forecasting Best Practices: Technology 176 Conclusion 178 Chapter 11: Calculations and Modeling in Budgeting Software 181 Introduction 181 Why Companies Use Budgeting Software 181 Calculations in Accounting Systems and Spreadsheets 183 Budgeting Software 184 OLAP Databases 186 Modeling and Budgeting 188 Processes 189 More Complex Budgeting Calculations 190 Conclusion 192 Chapter 12: Cost-Accounting Systems: Integration with Manufacturing Budgeting 193 Introduction 193 Decision Factors in the Selection Process 194 Cost-Accounting System Options 195 Costs Associated with a Product 195 Labor Cost 196

10 viii n Contents Variable Costing and Budgeting 197 Full Costing and Budgeting 217 Cost-Accumulation Procedures 219 Valuation: Actual versus Standard 221 Actual Costing 223 Actual Costing, Budgeting, and Cost Control 226 Standard Costing 226 Variance Reporting 231 Variances and Budgeting 236 Manufacturing Overhead 236 Manufacturing Overhead, Budgeting, and Cost Control 247 Chapter 13: Break-Even and Contribution Analysis as a Tool in Budgeting 249 Introduction 249 Break-Even Analysis 249 Price/Volume Chart 254 Contribution Analysis 255 Cost Volume Price and the Budgeting Process 261 Chapter 14: Profitability and the Cost of Capital 263 Introduction 263 A Market Gauge for Performance 265 Coping with the Cost of Equity 266 Building Company-Wide Profit Goals 268 Building Divisional Profit Goals 270 Information Problems and Cost of Capital 276 Summary 276 Chapter 15: Budgeting Shareholder Value 279 Introduction 279 Long-Term Valuation 281 Economic Value Added 285 Complementary Measures of Valuation 290 Budgeting Shareholder Value 293 Summary 296 Chapter 16: Applying the Budget System 297 Introduction 297 Initial Budget Department Review of Divisional Budget Packages 299 Divisional Review Meetings 302 Budget Consolidation and Analysis 303 Preliminary Senior Management Review 303 Final Revision of Operating Group Plans 304 Second Budget Staff Review of Operating Group Plans 304 Revised Consolidated Budget Preparations 305

11 Contents n ix Final Senior Management Budget Review Sessions 305 Operating Groups Monthly Submissions 306 Effective Use of Graphics 306 Summary 306 Chapter 17: Budgets and Performance Compensation 307 Introduction 307 Measures of Executive Performance 308 Structuring Reward Opportunities 316 Pitfalls of Linking Incentives to Budgets 317 An Optimal Approach 320 Adjusting Operating Unit Targets 324 Budgets and Long-Term Incentive Plans 326 Summary 328 Chapter 18: Predictive Costing, Predictive Accounting 329 Internet Forces the Need for Better Cost Forecasting 329 Traditional Budgeting: An Unreliable Compass 330 Activity-Based Costing as a Foundation for Activity-Based Planning and Budgeting 331 Budgeting: User Discontent and Rebellion 331 Weary Annual Budget Parade 333 ABC/M as a Solution for Activity-Based Planning and Budgeting 334 Activity-Based Cost Estimating 335 Activity-Based Planning and Budgeting Solution 336 Early Views of Activity-Based Planning and Budgeting Were Too Simplistic 337 Important Role of Resource Capacity Causes New Thinking 337 Major Clue: Capacity Exists Only as a Resource 339 Measuring and Using Cost Data 340 Usefulness of Historical Financial Data 341 Where Does Activity-Based Planning and Budgeting Fit In? 344 Activity-Based Planning and Budgeting Solution 345 Risk Conditions for Forecasting Expenses and Calculated Costs 350 Framework to Compare and Contrast Expense-Estimating Methods 352 Economics 101? 355 Chapter 19: Cost Behavior and the Relationship to the Budgeting Process 357 Introduction 357 Cost Behavior 357 Break-Even Analysis 360 Additional Cost Concepts 365 Differential Cost Concepts 368 Maximizing Resources 370 Estimating Costs 373 Summary 375

12 x n Contents PART THREE: PREPARATION OF SPECIFIC BUDGETS Chapter 20: Sales and Marketing Budget 379 Introduction 379 Overview of the Budget Process 379 Special Budgeting Problems 384 Pertinent Tools 389 Unique Aspects of Some Industries 392 Summary 394 Chapter 21: Manufacturing Budget 395 IIntroduction 395 Concepts 400 Changing to a Cost-Management System 402 Problems in Preparing the Manufacturing Budget 407 Three Solutions 410 Technique 410 Determining Production Requirements 411 Step 1: Developing the Plannable Core 413 Step 2: Obtaining Sales History and Forecast 413 Step 3: Scheduling New and Revised Product Appearance 415 Step 4: Determining Required Inventory Levels 416 Step 5: Establishing Real Demonstrated Shop Capacity 418 Step 6: Publishing the Master Schedule 424 A Total Quality Program The Other Alternative 425 Inventory and Replenishment 431 More on the Manufacturing Budget 434 Determining Raw-Material Requirements 434 Determining Other Indirect-Material Costs 436 Determining Direct-Labor Costs 437 Establishing the Manufacturing Overhead Functions and Services 440 Quality Control Economics Review Questions 447 Plant Engineering Buildings and Equipment Maintenance Review Questions 449 Floor and Work-in-Process Control Review Questions 450 Summary 451 Chapter 22: Research and Development Budget 455 Relationship of Research and Development and Engineering to the Total Budgeting Process 455 Problems in Establishing Research and Development and Engineering Objectives 459 Developing a Technological Budget 465 Preparing a Departmental Budget 481 Managing a Budget 484 Coordinating Project Budgets 490

13 Contents n xi Chapter 23: Administrative-Expense Budget 493 Introduction 493 Role and Scope of the Administrative-Expense Budget 493 Methods Used for Preparing the Administrative-Expense Budget 498 Factors that Impact the Administrative-Expense Budget 502 Unique Issues Impacting the Administrative-Expense Budget 503 Tools and Techniques for Managing the Administrative-Expense Budget 504 Summary 506 Chapter 24: Budgeting the Purchasing Department and the Purchasing Process 507 Description and Definition of the Process Approach 507 Role of Process Measures 512 Process Measures 513 Creating the Procurement Process Budget 517 Chapter 25: Capital Investment Review: Toward a New Process 519 Introduction 519 Context of the Revised Capital-Investment Review Process 520 Benchmarking Capital-Investment Review Best Practices 523 Revised Capital-Investment Review Process: Overview 527 Implementation: What Bonneville Learned in the First Three Years 541 Summary 544 Chapter 26: Leasing 545 Introduction 545 Overview of the Leasing Process 546 Possible Advantages of Leasing 549 Possible Disadvantages of Leasing 550 Types of Lease Sources 550 Lease Reporting 552 Lease versus Purchase Analysis 560 Financial Accounting Standards Board Rule 13 Case Illustration 564 Negotiation of Leases 565 Selecting a Lessor 566 Lease-Analysis Techniques 566 Lease Form 572 Summary 579 Chapter 27: Balance-Sheet Budget 581 Introduction 581 Purpose of the Balance-Sheet Budget 582 Definition 582 Responsibility for the Budget 583 Types of Financial Budgets 587

14 xii n Contents Preparing Financial Budgets 588 Preparing the Balance-Sheet Budget 591 Adequate Cash 620 Financial Ratios 620 Analyzing Changes in the Balance Sheet 628 Chapter 28: Budgeting Property and Liability Insurance Requirements 635 Introduction 635 Role Risk Management Plays in the Budgeting Process 637 Types of Insurance Mechanisms 638 Role of Insurance/Risk Consultants 639 Use of Agents/Brokers 639 Self-Insurance Alternatives 640 Identifying the Need for Insurance 643 Key Insurance Coverages 645 Identifying Your Own Risks 650 How to Budget for Casualty Premiums 653 Summary 656 PART FOUR: BUDGETING APPLICATIONS Chapter 29: Budgeting: Key to Corporate Performance Management 659 Future of Budgeting 659 Adding Value to the Organization 660 Corporate Performance Management 661 Developing a Budget Process Focused on Implementation of Strategy 662 Role of Technology 666 Overcoming Organizational Resistance 669 Planning and Controlling Implementation of a New System 670 Conclusion 675 Chapter 30: Zero-Based Budgeting 677 Introduction 677 Problems with Traditional Techniques 678 Zero-Based Approach 679 Zero-Based Budgeting Procedures 680 Decision Package 681 Ranking Process 687 Completing the Profit and Loss 689 Preparing Detailed Budgets 692 Summary 695 Chapter 31: Bracket Budgeting 697 Introduction 697 Application of Bracket Budgeting 698

15 Contents n xiii Premises to Profits? 699 Developing a Tactical Budgeting Model 700 Bracket Budgeting in Annual Planning 719 Consolidating Income Statements 720 Summary of Benefits 720 Summary 722 Chapter 32: Program Budgeting: Planning, Programming, Budgeting 723 Introduction 723 Description of Program Budgeting 724 History 728 Framework of Program Budgeting 734 Program Structuring 747 Types of Analysis 751 Installation Considerations 759 Summary 763 Chapter 33: Activity-Based Budgeting 767 Introduction 767 Traditional Budgeting Does Not Support Excellence 768 Activity-Based Budgeting Definitions 771 Activity-Based Budgeting Process 774 Linking Strategy and Budgeting 775 Translate Strategy to Activities 780 Determine Workload 781 Create Planning Guidelines 783 Identify Interdepartmental Projects 783 Improvement Process 787 Finalizing the Budget 787 Performance Reporting 788 Summary 790 PART FIVE: INDUSTRY BUDGETS Chapter 34: Budgeting For Corporate Taxes 793 Introduction 793 Taxation of C Corporations 794 Personal Holding Company Tax 799 Net Operating Loss Utilization 799 Charitable Contributions 800 Taxation Budget 802 Federal Corporate Tax 803 Purposes 804 Tax Return 804

16 xiv n Contents Chapter 35: Budgeting in the Global Internet Communication Technology Industry 805 Overview 805 Essentials from Earlier Chapters 806 Freemium Strategies 808 Volunteer Services 809 Enterprise Risk Management 811 About the Editor 813 About the Contributors 815 Index 825

17 Foreword The idea of budgeting often brings fear, even loathing, to the minds of most persons. Perhaps that is because many of us were first introduced to the term by trying to figure out how to spend our seemingly unfairly small allowances as children. It was not easy to figure out how much candy we could buy and still go to the movies on the weekend. These days our children buy more movies (and video games) than they attend, but the principles (and the sweets) are the same. In its simplest sense, budgeting is any plan, usually expressed in financial or mathematical terms. As an expression of expectations, a budget generally aligns resources with needs to accomplish a specific goal. As mileposts and measuring sticks, budgets provide invaluable benchmarks that can be used every day in reacting to management challenges. Some see budgets as a necessary evil, but in reality they are underrated tools that can greatly enhance any business process. The greatest value of budgets arming management with key decision-making tools is often overlooked. To the uninitiated, a budget succeeds or fails based on how close actual results compare to expectations. While it is great fun to predict the future accurately, to win a bet as they say, life s best lessons are often learned in analyzing why you were wrong. In reality, analyzing the reasons actual results differ from expected results is a far more useful tool than the often disappointing attempt to accurately predict the future. This cannot be done effectively without a budget to compare things to. Like the weather, financial futures are difficult to predict and sometimes correlate only with predictions as result of an accident, good luck or otherwise. Were these assumptions wrong? Were needs incorrectly calculated? Did the business environment change? Did the world change? Was a better method or process discovered? Were there unanticipated challenges? By studying what is different and the reasons for differences, we can continually improve both performance and our ability to predict the future. We have certainly come a long way in improving our ability to predict the weather, but expectations for accuracy have also increased. Similarly, the art and science of budgeting has advanced dramatically over the years since the handbook was first published. Revisions in this edition reflect alterations and improvements comparing these budgets to older ones. xv

18 xvi n Foreword Budgets are clearly not just for children to manage their allowances and meager earnings. They are not just for big businesses either, as some would incorrectly perceive. Budgets are for everyone. In modern times, budgets are often (unfortunately) utilized only by midsize businesses when they are in trouble. They would likely be in trouble less frequently if they used budgets more often. Certainly there is less superficial need to manage resources when revenues seem to flow effortlessly well beyond the costs needed to sustain a business. The lack of need in these cases is invariably only superficial; easy money is a fleeting concept. Darwinian pressures on business provide survival only to the fittest and most prepared. As can be learned by studying the various budgets in this book, time, money, and processes can be budgeted. Planning for the future enhances our understanding of the present. Budgets reduce the chances of repetition of past errors, and while nothing can prevent the commission of new errors or the introduction of new challenges, effective budgeting can lead to the preparedness necessary to deal with adversity and opportunity when either is on your doorstep. This handbook is a resource that will help you identify the right type of budget to use and which tools to implement in actually completing the budget and provide insight into analyzing your budget against actual expectations. David A. Lifson, CPA Crowe Horwath LLP David Lifson, CPA, is a partner with Crowe Horwath LLP and leads the New York City tax and business consultancy practice, where he develops business strategies and personal financial plans utilizing both his and the firm s broad range of accounting, audit, tax, and business consulting backgrounds, both domestically and internationally. He specializes in advising clients on managing various types of business change within tax, economic, and other related constraints and dealing with the tax compliance challenges that accompany change. This includes starting or closing a business; buying, merging, or selling one; or trying to change or value an existing operation. Mr. Lifson is the recipient of the American Institute of CPAs 2009 Arthur J. Dixon Memorial Award, the accounting profession s highest award in the area of taxation. He has chaired the Tax Executive Committee, served as a member of the AICPA Board of Directors and on its council, and has chaired or served on various committees, task forces, and technical resource panels over the years. He is also a former president of the New York State Society of CPAs and has served in various capacities on its behalf. Mr Lifson has chaired the Small Business and Self Employed subgroup of the Internal Revenue Service s Advisory Council (IRSAC) while serving on the council. IRSAC meets regularly to advise the Commissioner of the IRS and key IRS group leaders on how to administer the tax system effectively.

19 Preface THE NEED TO IMPROVE YOUR BUDGETING PROCESSES Despite advances in technology and finance, we have not reached the limit of knowledge or made the most advanced achievements in reaching our financial goals. That is a definition of a frontier that we face in these times. There are many types of budgeting, and most of them are covered in this book. The need for sound, dependable information as the basis for quality decision making based on reliable budgets, I contend, has never been stronger. That is the reason I proposed revising this book to present this sixth edition of the Handbook of Budgeting. I could report on the state of the economy and economic trends, citing a variety of sources and experts; however, my only point is that in bad times more than in good times, budgeting can be key to an entity s survival or prosperity. This book is intended as a business tool. I shall leave it to the academicians to analyze what might work better. Instead, our authors present 35 chapters of tried-and-true experiences taken from frontline business exposure that will enlighten you as to how you may incorporate real changes in your environment. I became the second editor of this book after its founding editor died. One reason I was selected to replace him was due to the extensive work I was doing at the time in the budgeting area for delivering continuing professional education to senior financial executives. One day at a conference, an attendee approached me, realized I was the book editor, and paid me the highest compliment I ever received. She told me that she worked with a copy of the book open on her desk. There is no outer limit in any field of endeavor, especially one in which the opportunities for research and development have not been exploited. This is the new frontier that must be met with technology and information management in finance in modern times which companies must master in order to survive and prosper. Use every tool at your disposal. THE FORECAST ON BUDGETING The Handbook of Budgeting has been revised in this sixth edition to retain some evergreen knowledge from previous contributors, augmented by new experts on new topics. xvii

20 xviii n Preface More contributions from corporate perspectives translate into more opportunities for you to take this information to your team and to implement the lessons this book contains company-wide. Chief financial officers, chief information officers, chief operating officers; vice presidents of fnance; controllers and assistant controllers; directors and managers of budgeting, forecasting, financial planning, analysis, business planning, strategic planning, performance measurement, and finance; financial consultants; budget analysts; and financial analysts will all find that this book has been designed with their specific needs in mind. Our contributors and I believe that budgeting is the most important component of an overall dynamic business planning process. When it is combined with available technology, you may quickly analyze its impact on your business, which will lead you to more effective decisions that improve the profitability of your company. Please note that the term budgeting is used in its broadest context and includes the major process components of strategic planning, target setting, operational planning, financial planning, reporting, and forecasting. According to research referred to in the pages of this book, forward-looking companies spend significantly more time (44 percent of the total time spent in planning) on forecasting and action-planning activities that can actually improve business performance. They also focus on what is important by implementing best practices throughout the planning process. You will also find information in the Handbook of Budgeting on the latest businessplanning software that allows you to develop budgets quickly by employing Web-based technology to process information over the Internet. Companies that use the latest technology can also quickly assess the impact to their bottom line based on competition, economic slowdowns, and consumer behavior. Always remember that the consequences of inadequate action planning and forecasting can be severe when a company s performance fails to meet Wall Street expectations. It is the intention of John Wiley & Sons, Inc., that the Handbook of Budgeting will help you to meet the challenges of this new frontier. William Rea Lalli, Editor January 2012

21 I PART ONE introduction to the budgeting Process ChAPtER 1 ChAPtER 2 ChAPtER 3 ChAPtER 4 ChAPtER 5 ChAPtER 6 ChAPtER 7 ChAPtER 8 ChAPtER 9 integrating the balanced Scorecard for improved Planning and Performance Management 3 Strategic balanced Scorecard based budgeting and Performance Management 25 budgeting and the Strategic Planning Process 41 budgeting and Forecasting: Process or Process Overhaul? 71 the budget: An integral Element of internal Control 93 the Relationship between Strategic Planning and the budgeting Process 103 the Essentials of business Valuation 115 Moving beyond budgeting: integrating Continuous Planning and Adaptive Control 145 Moving beyond budgeting: An Update 161

22

23 1 CHAPTER ONE integrating the balanced Scorecard for improved Planning and Performance Management Antosh G. Nirmul Balanced Scorecard Collaborative, Inc. OVERViEW The balanced scorecard is a management tool developed by Drs. Robert Kaplan and David Norton in the early 1990s. Since that time, the scorecard has become a standard management practice adopted by large and small organizations throughout the world. The balanced scorecard is based on the simple premise that people and organizations respond and perform based on what is measured. Often this is described as People respond to what is inspected, not expected. Measurement becomes a language that communicates clear priorities to the organization. Because the primary goal of any organization (commercial, governmental, or nonprofit) is to create value for its stakeholders and because the strategy is the way the organization intends to create value, the measurement system should be closely linked to the strategy. The balanced scorecard provides a measurement system that translates the strategy into operational terms through a series of causal relationships defined around four key perspectives (see Exhibit 1.1): 1. Financial perspective. For commercial organizations, the financial perspective defines the value created for the shareholders. For noncommercial organizations, the expectations of the financial stakeholders are defined. 3

24 4 n Integrating the Balanced Scorecard for Improved Planning Exhibit 1.1 Four Perspectives of the Balanced Scorecard 2. Customer perspective. The targeted customers and the value they receive from the organization are defined in the customer perspective. The value expectations of the customers typically are developed around the standard attributes of cost, quality, service, and time. 3. Internal perspective. The key processes at which the organization must excel are defined in the internal perspective. Often these processes are grouped into a few key themes, such as operation excellence, customer intimacy, and innovation. 4. Learning and growth perspective. The key capabilities of the organization in terms of people, skills, technology, and culture are defined in the learning and growth perspective. These organizational attributes are the foundation for future strategic success. By specifying and measuring the organization s key priorities within these four perspectives, a balanced view can be obtained. One element of this balance is the traditional mix of financial and nonfinancial factors, but the other, more innovative balance, is in the timing of strategic impact. In terms of fostering long-term sustainable success, each of the four perspectives has a time-specific impact that contributes to the concept of balanced management. Even though the overall goal may be financial or shareholder value, each of the other perspectives contributes differently to the outlook for that goal. The financial perspective measures financial performance for a past period (last quarter, last year, etc.). The customer perspective measures the value delivered to and the overall satisfaction of customers which will have a short-term future impact on the financial performance. The internal perspective measures the ability of the organization

25 Elements of a Balanced Scorecard n 5 to execute its processes that will have a short-term future impact on customer value and a medium-term impact on financial performance. The learning and growth perspective measures the development of organizational capabilities that will have a short-term impact on operational execution, a medium-term impact on customer satisfaction, and a long-term impact on financial performance. By analyzing and measuring the strategy across all four perspectives, organizations achieve balance between the leading and lagging indicators of performance as well as between financial and nonfinancial factors. The combination of these multiple dimensions of balance allows a more holistic understanding of the organization s strategic execution and ultimate strategic success. Management should be able to use the scorecard results to obtain a snapshot of the current performance and a forecast of future strategic performance for the organization. This snapshot should highlight any key issues and be a valuable tool in steering the business through the allocation of resources and prioritization of strategic initiatives. ELEMENtS OF A balanced SCORECARD The primary elements of a balanced scorecard are the strategic objectives, performance measures, execution targets, and strategic initiatives (see Exhibit 1.2). These elements must be clearly defined and properly aligned among the four perspectives to create a useful management tool. Once these elements are aligned, their combination should be able to tell the story of the strategy in a clear and common framework. A well-defined framework will become a standard strategic language that can be used throughout the organization to better understand and manage strategy. Strategic Objectives The strategic objectives are short statements of the strategy that are used to highlight the key priorities of the organization. Specifying the objectives is the first and most strategically important step in designing a balanced scorecard. The objectives should be designed to reflect a midterm version of the strategy, typically the priorities over the next five years. The strategic objectives should highlight the most important priorities for the organization to Exhibit 1.2 Primary Elements of the Balanced Scorecard

26 6 n Integrating the Balanced Scorecard for Improved Planning focus on during this time period. These objectives typically are formatted in a verb-adjectivenoun format similar to activities (see Exhibit 1.3 for examples). To show the emphasis on the customer s expectations, objectives for the customer perspective generally are specified in the words of the customer. The formatting of customer objectives is represented as the key attributes of the organization s products and services that represent value to the customer. The definition of the strategic objectives is an area that clearly makes the balanced scorecard a strategic management tool rather than a simple key performance measure framework. The identification of the priorities of the organization across each perspective requires a well-developed strategy that is understood by the organization. Senior management involvement is especially critical during the definition of the objectives. To define strategic objectives, an organization must understand these questions: Financial. What is the primary financial outcome for the organization? What are the key financial levers necessary to achieve that outcome? Customer. Who are my primary customers or customer groups? What attributes differentiate my products or services to these customers? What is most important to the customer? Internal. What areas of my internal processes must excel to satisfy the customers? How do these processes link together to meet specific customer needs? What is the internal focus of my organization: operational excellence, innovation, customer knowledge, and other key goals? Learning and growth. What skills and capabilities are necessary to execute the strategy in the future? What type of people and culture will enable the organization s success? How should we manage technology and information to leverage these assets for tangible results? Only after the organization has clearly articulated its strategy through the strategic objectives can the subject of performance measures be properly addressed. A large organization can typically expect to define between 20 and 25 strategic objectives for a Exhibit 1.3 Sample Strategic Objectives

27 Elements of a Balanced Scorecard n 7 clearly articulated strategy. More than 25 objectives would indicate a lack of clear priorities for the organization. Fewer objectives can be sufficient if they are defined specifically enough to communicate the strategy effectively. The definition of the strategic objectives should highlight areas of inconsistency in the strategy. An organization cannot seek to be all things to all customers. The strategic objective process is designed to highlight the most important outcomes that define value for the shareholders and customers as well as the few key processes and organizational attributes that contribute most to that value. The objectives will not cover every activity performed by the organization but should highlight those that will be most critical over the strategic horizon. Performance Measures As a measurement framework, the balanced scorecard often is judged by the quality of the performance measures. Performance measures serve to further clarify the priorities of an organization by directly identifying the most important priorities for strategic execution. The performance measures identify how the organization will judge success. Most organizations already have some type of indicators defined throughout the various levels of the business. The issue in defining the scorecard is to identify the most important measures that will reflect the execution of the strategy. The performance measures on a balanced scorecard often are compared to the dashboard on an automobile. While the driver of the car looks at only a few key metrics (speed, fuel level, etc.), the car itself monitors hundreds of other pieces of information. In our case, the executives of the organization use the scorecard as the key performance information they need to monitor and steer the business while other more operational metrics are looked at within the business. The other operational metrics can be brought forward to the executives only when there is an unusual problem. Major changes (intended or not) in performance and execution should be visible through the scorecard measures. A number of different types of performance measures can be used on a balanced scorecard (see Exhibit 1.4). The choice of specific performance measures is a very Exhibit 1.4 Types of Performance Measures

28 8 n Integrating the Balanced Scorecard for Improved Planning individual decision for the organization. There is no template set of scorecard measures that will be appropriate for any strategy. There are, however, a few guidelines that can assist an organization in choosing appropriate measures: Choose at least one measure for each strategic objective. Total measures should be around 25 for a large organization. Choose quantitative rather than subjective measures where possible. The goal of these guidelines is to create the most useful set of measures possible. The existence of any strategic objective that cannot be described by a measure should call into question the validity of that strategy. Experience with senior management has shown that using more than 25 indicators makes it very difficult for executives to understand and focus on the results. The clearest measures are those that result in a specific and understandable number (e.g., dollars, number of employees, etc.). Generally, more subjective measures, such as indices and survey results, are more difficult to measure, communicate, and understand. While it is impossible to create a scorecard with only objective measures, the balance should be toward more numerical and less subjective indicators. Another key factor to consider when choosing measures is the frequency of data reporting. The organization cannot expect to have executive discussions on scorecard results each quarter if its data are available only on an annual basis. The choice of measures should correspond to the frequency of desired reporting. Most organizations review their scorecard performance and strategic focus on a quarterly basis. In this case, at least 75 percent of an organization s scorecard measures should be available at that frequency. Execution Targets The setting and communication of targets are key steps necessary to operationalize a scorecard. While the measures communicate where management focus will be, the targets communicate the expected level of performance. For example, a measure such as customer retention shows a strategic focus: The difference between a 90 percent target and a 60 percent target represents a major shift in strategy. The setting of appropriate targets can be a difficult and painful process. An important distinction in setting targets is the difference between standard performance targets and stretch targets. Stretch targets typically are used in areas of new or enhanced strategic focus and are meant to move the organization in new directions. Typically these targets are multiyear in nature, and their implementation approach is not fully defined when they are initially set. For an established organization, a target such as doubling revenue in three years would require significant changes. Often the precise steps needed to reach that target are not yet defined. The use of a stretch target forces innovation and change in an organization. Obviously, an organization cannot set 25 stretch targets and hope to achieve all of them. Most execution targets will be more traditional incremental advances that reflect successful execution of the strategy. The choice of where to use stretch versus

29 Elements of a Balanced Scorecard n 9 incremental targets strongly defines the emphasis in the strategy. Stretch targets create inspirational goals for the organization; incremental targets supplement those goals with core areas that need continual focus for sustained success. The key point in choosing appropriate execution targets, whether stretch or incremental, is evaluating the capabilities of an organization and its resources. Incremental targets should be clearly reachable given the available resources and capabilities. The setting of unreasonable targets undermines employee faith and accountability in the performance management process. While the achievement of stretch targets may not be easily envisioned initially, the targets should come into clearer focus as the time period for the stretch goals is crossed. Every stretch target should have a measurable time period attached and should be updated throughout that time frame. Typically, stretch targets would be set at a maximum of 20 percent of the total measures and with 80 percent of targets remaining as incremental improvements. Strategic Initiatives Strategic initiatives are actions or projects that represent the primary path through which organizations create new skills, capabilities, or infrastructure to achieve strategic goals. In this definition, strategic initiatives are different from projects or actions that simply create incremental improvement over or maintain the existing skills, capabilities, or infrastructure of an organization. For example, in a financial organization, a project to build a new online ability to process self-service customer transactions could be a strategic initiative while a project to improve the interface of existing online tools or extend the online services would be considered an incremental upgrade of existing capabilities. The criteria that an organization uses to define which actions are considered strategic versus basic projects are unique to its strategy and circumstances. Typically, a strategic initiative has a certain strategic importance, size, and breadth of influence that makes it more than an operational project (see Exhibit 1.5). The goal in identifying actions that are strategic initiatives versus operational projects or activities is to be able to allocate resources in a more strategic manner using the scorecard and strategy. This distinction is explored further in the separation of operational versus strategic budgets when the scorecard is integrated into the planning process. Exhibit 1.5 Key Criteria that Separate Strategic Initiatives

30 10 n Integrating the Balanced Scorecard for Improved Planning When creating a balanced scorecard, an organization should be able to identify its existing strategic initiatives and map them across the strategic objectives and measures on the scorecard. The mapping process is particularly important in that it can identify areas of strategic alignment (see Exhibit 1.6). Any identified initiative that cannot be mapped directly to a scorecard objective may not truly be a priority effort for executing the current strategy. Conversely, a key strategy with stretch targets that does not have an initiative associated with the strategy will be difficult to achieve (the target). Initiatives are particularly important for instances where stretch targets are defined, which by definition requires the development of new organization abilities. In Exhibit 1.6 you can see certain gaps where there are no identified initiatives for the specified objectives. These gaps need to be carefully analyzed based on their context before any decisions are made. Financial objectives typically do not have many initiatives attached to them because as ultimate outcomes all initiatives eventually support the financial goals. Most initiatives will directly support the internal and learning and growth perspectives that represent the strategic processes being implemented to achieve the customer and financial outcomes. The lack of an initiative for a specific objective may mean that the organization can achieve that goal with incremental effort or that there is a strategic gap. In performing this analysis, the relation of the overall execution Exhibit 1.6 Sample Initiative Mapping