Poverty, Inequality and the Welfare State
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1 Poverty, Inequality and the Welfare State Lectures 3 and 4 Le Grand, Propper and Smith (2008): Chp 9 Stiglitz (2000): Chp 14 Connolly and Munro (1999): Chp 14, 15, 16, 17
2 Outline Income and wealth defined Measuring poverty Measuring inequality Measuring income mobility The market system and social insurance The re-distributive role of Government Marie M Stack Economics of Public Issues 2
3 Standards of Living: Income and Wealth Defined Income defined: the flow derived from a stock of wealth Wealth yields a flow of income Financial wealth Physical assets Human capital Measuring Wealth Full money income = money income + non-money income In practice, income is measured by money income only Marie M Stack Economics of Public Issues 3
4 Measuring Standards of Living GDP per capita OECD modified equivalence scales household income, adjusted for household size and age composition Numerical example Weights: household head (1); additional member (0.5); child (0.3) Income for household (married couple with 2 children) = 42k What is equivalent standard of living for a single person? What is household income per capita? Marie M Stack Economics of Public Issues 4
5 Measuring Poverty Definition of the poor? Absolute: standard of living at subsistence level eg US$1 a day (WB) Relative: relative to standards of living in society (% of average income) UK official definition of poverty Household income below 60% of the median International measures Official poverty statistics (UK, US) v social exclusion (Europe) Marie M Stack Economics of Public Issues 5
6 International Comparisons (Smeeding 2006) Table 1 Absolute Poverty (%) Table 2 Relative Poverty (%) UK 12.4 US 17.0 US Germany Sweden Netherlands Canada Finland Belgium Ireland Italy UK Canada Germany Belgium Austria Netherlands Austria 5.2 Sweden 6.5 Germany 8.3 Finland 5.4 Marie M Stack Economics of Public Issues 6
7 Limitations of Poverty Measures Depth of poverty: how far below the poverty line? Is income a good indicator of standards of living? The consumption-leisure trade-off The life-cycle hypothesis Complex nature of poverty Alternative indicators of standards of living Expenditure: consumption smoothing Relative deprivation indexes Other measures Neighbourhood poverty Capabilities eg UN Human Development Index Marie M Stack Economics of Public Issues 7
8 Poverty v Inequality Poverty: concerned with a standard of living below which people are poor Inequality: distribution of resources among individuals and groups Inequality and absolute Poverty Complete equality but everyone poor Complete inequality and nobody poor Link between inequality and relative Poverty If society is unequal, it is likely that some people fall below poverty threshold Marie M Stack Economics of Public Issues 8
9 Measuring Inequality I Concentration of resources Table 3 UK Distribution of Wealth Year Top 1% Top 10% Top 50% Source: HM Revenue and Customs Marie M Stack Economics of Public Issues 9
10 Measuring Inequality II The Lorenz curve - Perfect equality of income along the diagonal line - Income inequality if the Lorenz curve is below the diagonal - Equality achieved via re-distribution of amount = distance between the Lorenz curve and the diagonal - Gini coefficient: measures this distance ie the higher the value, the more unequal the distribution of income Marie M Stack Economics of Public Issues 10
11 Measuring Income Mobility Poverty and Inequality: snapshot of living standards at a point in time Income mobility: dynamics of incomes over time Individual level Inter-generational eg a transition matrix Father s income quartile Lowest Son s income quartile 2 nd 3 rd Top Lowest nd rd Top Source: UK National Child Development Survey Marie M Stack Economics of Public Issues 11
12 Government Intervention in Poverty and Welfare: Equity Promote a fair and equitable distribution of resources 1. Minimum level of social insurance A basic minimum standard of income which no one falls below Temporary income relief UK post-war welfare state Additional support for families 2. Social Justice Equality of opportunity Factors beyond a person s control eg different starting points The barriers to equal outcomes involve social factors Measured by income mobility 3. Equality of outcomes Goal that income be equally distributed. Attainable? Marie M Stack Economics of Public Issues 12
13 Government Intervention in Poverty and Welfare: Efficiency In the absence of equity concerns, govt action is still justified Market system is unlikely to lead to a fair distribution of resources Limit supply artificially Market power Discrimination The market may fail to provide insurance for those willing to buy it because of market failures Social risks Adverse selection Moral hazard Primary functions of govt include insurance against disability, unemployment and old age Marie M Stack Economics of Public Issues 13
14 Re-distributive Role of Govt Intervention I: Direct Provision Insurance against poverty related circumstances Categorical benefits Eligible, regardless of income A form of income replacement Provide minimum standards and reduce inequality, but not targeted Asset-based welfare provide people with financial assets v income replacement Why? Consumption smoothing Unexpected spending needs and borrowing ability Funds for investment eg Child Trust Fund Marie M Stack Economics of Public Issues 14
15 Re-distributive Role of Govt Intervention II: Regulation Regulation of prices eg National Minimum Wage (1999) Distributional consequences E F : cost borne by shareholders ( profits) or consumers ( prices); labourers gain Reduce poverty and inequality? Social justice and fair pay Equality and pay caps Marie M Stack Economics of Public Issues 15
16 Re-distributive Role of Govt Intervention III: Taxes and Subsidies UK tax system: progressive Means-tested benefits targets low income households reduce poverty, but take-up rate: 80% reduce inequality: Gini coefficient Promote social justice? Short-termism Means-tested benefits and a culture of dependency? Cultural mechanism: acceptability Economic mechanism: disincentives to work; loss of benefits in-kind; and costs associated with working the poverty trap Marie M Stack Economics of Public Issues 16
17 Reforming the Benefits System The Traditional Welfare State: criticised Culture of dependency Abuse and fraud Undermines incentives to work and save Are the poor feckless or rational economic agents? Overcoming disincentive problems: make work pay UK: eg Working Families Tax Credit (WFTC) Means-tested benefits, conditional on min 16 hours work pw Above threshold level of earnings, amount of credit gradually decreases: 60% rate Applicable to households with children NB positive effect for lone parents Marie M Stack Economics of Public Issues 17
18 Summary Standards of living and the distribution of resources Poverty Inequality Income mobility Markets and Efficiency Aggregate risks Adverse selection Moral hazard Govt policy and Equity Minimum standards Equality of Opportunity Equality of Outcomes Reforms of the Welfare State Asset-based welfare National minimum wage In-work benefits eg UK Working Families Tax Credit Marie M Stack Economics of Public Issues 18
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