Vandana Sipahimalani

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1 Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized SOUTH ASIA EDUCATION SECTOR TECHNICAL WORKING PAPER No. 2 INDIA FINANCING OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN INDIA IN THE 1990s WORILD BANK Vandana Sipahimalani New Delhi Office Report No. 2 November 29, 2000

2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This paper could not have been written without the valuable guidance of and input from Keith Hinchliffe. I would also like to thank Ward Heneveld, Emmanuel Y. Jimenez, Christine Allison and Kalpana Seethepalli for their useful comments and suggestions. In addition, I would like to thank all the India Education team members who have commented on the various drafts of the paper as it evolved and for responding to my many questions. 2

3 TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMIMARY... 4 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION... 7 CHAPTER TWO: HOW HAS PUBLIC SPENDING ON ELEMENTARY EDUCATION CHANGED OVER THE PAST DECADE? CHAPTER THREE: WHAT IS THE ROLE OF THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT IN FINANCING ELEMENTARY EDUCATION? CHAPTER FOUR: WHAT IS THE ROLE OF THE VARIOUS STATE GOVERNMENTS IN FINANCING ELEMENTARY EDUCATION? CHAPTER FIVE: HOW SIGNIFICANT IS THE FINANCIAL CONTRIBUTION OF HOUSEHOLDS TO ELEMENTARY EDUCATION? CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS: WHERE DO WE GO FROM ERE'? REFERENCES

4 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY (i) Indicators of the status of elementary education in India reveal that education for all remains an elusive goal. According to the National Sample Survey, 34 percent of primary school aged children and 57 percent of upper primary school aged children were not enrolled in school in Financing of this sector is certainly one of the key determinants of its outcomes. (ii) This paper studies the trends in the financing of elementary education in India over the past decade. There are several reasons why this is particularly important. In 1994 the Supreme Court issued a directive to universalize free and compulsory elementary education. The studies estimating resources required for universalization of elementary education in the near future have emphasized the need to increase the real investment in this sector. In addition, jhe Government of India has often stated its commitment to devote increasing resources to education in general, and elementary education in particular, to achieve the target of spending 6 percent of GDP on education by During the past decade, external assistance from donors was also sought for the first time for the elementary education sector. In addition, the nineties was a period of structural adjustment and economic liberalization in the country. In this changing economic milieu, where social service expenditures have often been reduced in other countries, it is important to analyze the financing of elementary education. (iii) The financing of elementary education by all agents is considered here including the Government of India, individual state governments and households. Data from central and state government budget documents are used to obtain public expenditures. Private expenditures are obtained from survey data. An attempt has been made to construct a rudimentary national educational accounts for the country compiling these government budget and survey data. While state governments collectively contribute over 60 percent of the total expenditure on providing and accessing education, households also contribute a significant amount (approximately 30 percent). The household contribution is spent mainly on attending non-fee charging schools as well as on fees for private schools. The share of the central government's contribution is about 7 percent. The analysis in this paper compares public spending on elementary education over time and across states. It explores the relationships between spending and national/state incomes. It also examines the variations in real expenditures and real expenditure per student. Further, an attempt is made to correlate public expenditures with enrollments in elementary schools in the various states. Finally, the paper studies the role of household spending on sending children to government, private aided and private unaided schools in the various states. (iv) The paper concludes that total real public spending on elementary education grew by 5.3 percent a year over the period to and then rose to 5.8 percent per annum when expenditures are taken into account. The World Bank (1997) estimated that to achieve universalization by 2007 required a real growth of about 8 percent per annum. Of course it must be kept in mind that other factors such as strategies 4

5 to reach out of school children and administrative efficiency certainly affect efforts to universalize elementary education. Nevertheless, sufficient finances are an essential prerequisite. Real spending per student rose by 4.3 percent per annum between and Contrary to the political rhetoric, however, total public spending on elementary education as a proportion of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) has actually declined over the decade. Elementary education has received an almost constant share of the education budget, and the education budget as a proportion of the total revenue budget has been almost constant over the decade. However, the increasing fiscal stress both at the center and the state government levels for most states has reduced the share of GDP allocated to revenue expenditures as a whole and developmental expenditures in particular. International comparisons reveal that India spends a lower proportion of GNP on education than other countries with similar per capita incomes. (v) The central government increased expenditures on elementary education substantially in the nineties. Total real spending increased almost five times between and The Government of India's share of plan funding for elementary education increased from 29 percent in to 52 percent in This funding has focussed on a few Centrally Sponsored Schemes such as Operation Blackboard, the Non Fornal Education scheme, the Midday Meal scheme and the externally aided District Primary Education Program. (vi) While the financing by the central government as a percentage of GDP has increased, state spending has not kept pace with national income growth. Collectively, state government expenditures on elementary education declined from 1.52 percent of GDP in to 1.28 percent of GDP in While total state government real expenditure on elementary education increased by approximately 4.4 percent per annum between and , this is clearly not enough to meet universalization targets (since state government provide 90 percent of the public funds for this sector). Real spending per student by all state governments grew by about 2.9 percent per annum. (vii) States differ considerably in their financing of elementary education. During the nineties, Himachal Pradesh, Kamataka, Maharashtra and Rajasthan increased their financial commitment to the sector considerably. Total real spending increased by more than 40 percent in all four states between 1991/92 and 1997/98. The highest level of real per student expenditure in was in Himachal Pradesh. States that had the smallest real increases in expenditure were Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal; all of which are considered educationally backward states. The lowest level of real per student expenditure in was in West Bengal. A simple regression analysis of increases in real state spending on education on enrolment increases suggests that a fairly strong positive relationship exists. This is a simplified regression and causality is hard to establish without taking into account several other factors. Nevertheless, these preliminary results do highlight the importance of increases in financing, particularly in the educationally backward states, where higher real rates of growth in expenditures will be needed to achieve universalization within the next decade. (viii) Finally, the paper explores the contribution of household expenditure to elementary education. According to survey data, some households spend a large amount on children attending private unaided schools. Considerable amounts are also spent on 5

6 children going to government and aided schools. A large portion of this expenditure is on books and stationery. Other items of expenditure include exam fees, transport, private coaching classes and boarding and lodging. Households bear roughly 43 percent of the cost of providing and accessing government schools. It is possible that the high private expenditures required to access even government elementary schools may restrict demand for education by poorer households. In this context, a more effective targeting of public subsidies would be essential to enable poorer children to enroll. (ix) The paper concludes that in order to enable all children up to the age of fourteen to attend elementary schools, higher rates of growth in real expenditures than have emerged in the nineties will be required. While all states have increased resources for elementary education, most of the educationally backward states need to invest more resources in the future. It is vital that the central government, households and individual state governments, in particular, sizably step up their joint investments to meet the future needs of this sector. 6

7 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Education in India is constitutionally a concurrent subject with responsibility shared between central and state governments. Its financing involves a complex interaction between the state governments, households and the central government, in that order. The majority of household expenditures are those required for accessing government facilities and fewer than ten percent of school enrolments are in private, fee paying schools. The extent of educational provision, and its quality, is largely determined by public spending. 1.2 The fiscal crisis in 1991 set the stage initially for short term adjustment policies and eventually for the unprecedented economic liberalization reforms which have continued over the decade. At around the same time the Government of India, through acceptance of international declarations of the need to universalize basic education and encouragement of specific accelerated programs, raised expectations of significant increases in public finance for education. This was strengthened by the Supreme Court's directive in 1994 to universalize compulsory and free elementary education. Since then in meetings of the National Development Council and in documents of the Ninth Plan published in 1999, central governments have reiterated the desire that public expenditures on education should reach an amount equivalent to six percent of GDP by In this context, and in light of the well publicized reductions in social services expenditures which have coincided with adjustment policies in many countries, particularly in sub Saharan Africa, it is important almost a decade later to understand the impact of the reforms on the availability of public finance for the education system. 1.3 Significant efforts to expand and improve elementary education over the past decade have been put in place. The largest of these has been the District Primary Education Program which is now implemented in over two hundred districts in fourteen of the fifteen major states. This program is mainly funded by the central government through grants and loans provided through donor organizations. This provides another reason for investigating the patterns and trends in the financing of education, particularly elementary education, over the past decade. While additional funds have been provided through the central government, what has been the behavior of different state governments in providing for the children in their states? 1.4 While government policy continues to emphasize universal elementary education, the reality in many states is far removed from this goal. The National Sample Survey Organization survey in concluded that the proportion of the relevant age group attending primary school was 66 percent (71 percent for boys and 61 percent for girls). At the upper primary level, the proportion was 43 percent (48 percent for boys and 38 percent for girls). These averages conceal wide variations between different groups of children with those living in rural areas, and particularly girls and members of scheduled castes and tribes, having much lower enrollment rates. They also conceal wide inter-state disparities. For almost all states in India, universalizing elementary education still remains an unfulfilled objective. 7

8 1.5 The broad issues of the overall impact of adjustment and economic liberalization on public finances for education, and of the effects of additional central government grants on the willingness of states to finance the sector are complex. In this introductory paper, the major intention is to set out the information on patterns and trends in education finance over the past decade and to shed some preliminary light. 1.6 This study traces the trends in elementary education financing in India over the past decade. It uses data from government budgets to explore the trends in government financing of elementary education.' It also uses data from NSSO's 52 nd round survey ( ) and NCAER's 1994 household survey to get information on household spending. The key questions focused on are: * How has public spending on elementary education changed over the past decade? * What is the role of the central government in financing elementary education? * What is the role of the various state governments in financing elementary education? * How significant is the financial contribution of households to elementary education? 1.7 The rest of the paper is divided into five chapters. The first three focus on overall public expenditure on education and the specific contributions made by central and then state governments. Chapter Four analyzes household expenditures. In the final chapter, the conclusions are summarized and some first attempts are made to answer the major questions raised above. However, prior to focusing in turn on expenditures by central and state governments and households, an attempt has been made to review the total expenditures by education level and by source which are made to provide and access education in India. Table 1 summarizes the financial resources spent on the various subsectors of education by each of the different sources. ' Financial data upto the year were obtained from the 'Selected Analysis of Budget Expenditure', a yearly publication of the Ministry of Human Resource Development. Central government financial data after this year were obtained from Union Government budget documents. State government financial data for (the last year for which actuals are available) were obtained from the study by Bashir (2000). Since these data are not available for three states as well as for union territories, data and, in some cases budget estimates, have been used for these. 8

9 TABLE 1: SPENDING ON EDUCATION BY SOURCE OF FUNDS: (Rs. Million) Central State/UT Households Total Government Governments Elementary [4.9] [57.3] [37.8] [52.6) Secondary [4.9] [67.7] [27.4] [30.7] University and other Higher [13.2] [58.6] [28.2] [11.7] Technical n.a [32.9] [67.1] [3.2] Other n.a 8472 [24.1] [75.9] [1.8] Total [7.1] 161.3] [31.6] [100.0] Note: Figures in parenthesis are percent of total. Percentages in first three columns sum to hundred horizontally i.e. the percentage of total expenditure on each sub-sector by each agent. Percentages in the last column sum to hundred vertically i.e. the percentage of total education expenditure spent on each sub-sector. 1.8 Overall, state governments provide 61 percent of the total cost of providing and accessing education, households, 32 percent, and the central government, 7 percent. As a share of total cost at each level, the central government subsidy is greatest for higher and secondary education. For each level of education, the state governments provide between 57 percent and 68 percent of total costs. Household expenditure on accessing education, both private and public is substantial. Overall it is almost one third of the total. What is perhaps most surprising is that the household share is greatest at the elementary level where it accounts for almost two fifths compared to both secondary and higher education where the contribution is just over one quarter. 2 Data used are from budget documents for GOI and state spending. Household spending is estimated by using data from the National Sample Survey Organization survey. Unit costs are multiplied by total enrollments to arrive at these estimates. 9

10 CHAPTER TWO: HOW HAS PUBLIC SPENDING ON ELEMENTARY EDUCATION CHANGED OVER THE PAST DECADE? 2.1 The central and state governments in India collectively bear the responsibility for financing the provision of public elementary education. While state govermments undertake most of the public expenditure on elementary education, the central government has a significant role to play in financing plan expenditures. Thus it is important to study the pattern of total government spending on elementary education over the past decade. 2.1 TOTAL EXPENDITURE 2.11 A good indication of the priority accorded to elementary education by the country's governments is the extent to which public spending on this sector has kept pace with national income. The Government of India and collective state governments have recently reiterated the target of allocating 6 percent of GDP for education by the end of the 9 th Plan period ( ). Currently, the reality is still far removed from this target. Further, the overall proportion declined from 3.65 percent (3.18 percent if only Departments of Education expenditure is considered) in to 3.48 percent (2.77 percent if only Departments of Education expenditure is considered) in The proportion of GDP spent by the Government of India and all states collectively on elementary education has also declined from 1.57 percent in to 1.37 percent in , as figure 1 and table 2 illustrate While the target for expenditure is not being achieved, it is not clear that this necessarily reflects a decline in the importance given to elementary education (or education as a whole) relative to other sectors. As Table 2 reveals, education expenditure as a proportion of total revenue expenditures by states has hovered around 19.5 to 20 percent over the decade and elementary education has consistently received about percent of the revenue expenditure on education in the 1990s. Thus, elementary education expenditure as a proportion of total revenue expenditure by states has also remained almost constant at about 10.2 percent over the decade. While expenditures on education have been able to retain a constant share of revenue expenditures, the proportion of GDP spent by states on revenue expenditures as a whole has fallen over the decade. In other words, the growth rate of revenue expenditures has not kept pace with GDP growth. This is seen in the first row of Table 2. In addition, the share of revenue expenditures devoted to developmental expenditures also declined until since when it has stabilized at around 61-62%. Overall, it could be argued that the decline in the share of education expenditure (and of elementary education expenditure) in GDP appears to be mainly the result of the decline of revenue and development expenditure as a share of GDP rather than the result of a decline in its importance relative to other sectors. On the other hand, there is no evidence of an increase in its importance as has been continually promised. 3 All figures are included in the annex to the text. 10

11 TABLE 2: EXPENDITURE PATTERNS OF STATE GOVERNMENTS Budget Estimates Revenue expenditure of all states (percentage of GDP) Developmental expenditure of all states (percentage of revenue expenditure) Education expenditure of all states (percentage of developmental expenditure) Education expenditure of all states (percentage of revenue expenditure) == _ Elementary Not available education expenditure of all states (percentage of revenue expenditure) Elementary education expenditure of all states (percentage of GDP) Elementary education expenditure of all states + GOI (percentage of GDP) 2.13 Figure I illustrates the trend in spending on elementary education when externally provided assistance (most of which are District Primary Education Program (DPEP) 4 State budgets are divided into revenue and capital accounts. Within each there are plan and non-plan categories. Education expenditures on the capital account are negligible. 11

12 funds) is excluded. In the absence of externally provided assistance, the proportion of GDP spent by the GOI and states on elementary education would have declined even more sharply from 1.57 percent in to 1.35 percent in A decline in the share of GDP does not mean that total real government (GOI + states) spending on elementary education has also declined over the decade. In fact, as Figure II illustrates, real government spending per student increased by an average of 4.3 percent a year between and This was accompanied by an average growth in enrollment over the same period of around 1.3 percent a year. However, given the net attendance rates for primary and upper primary schooling described above, neither the rate of increase of expenditures nor the increase in enrolments are at levels likely to lead to a rapid realization of universal elementary education. 2.2 INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS 2.21 While it is hard to obtain comparable figures for a cross section of countries for spending on elementary education, the data presented in table 3 relating to total spending on the education sector are indicative. According to the 1999 Human Development Report published by the UNDP, India spent 3.4 percent of its GNP on education. The countries grouped under the 'Medium Human Development' category (to which India belongs) spent, on average, 3.8 percent of GNP on education and several including Brazil, Thailand, Kenya and Mexico spent more than India. Even some of the countries in the 'Low Human Development' category spent proportionately more on education than India. These include, for instance, Cote D'Ivoire, which spent 5 percent of GNP and Burkina Faso, which spent 3.6 percent of its GNP on education. S 'Real' spending refers to expenditures at constant prices in The consumer price index for industrial workers (which forms the basis of the dearness allowance) is used as the deflator. 12

13 TABLE 3: INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS OF EDUCATION EXPENDITURE Country/Region Percent of Percent of Percent of GNP government education expenditure expenditure on primary & secondary education High Human Development Not available U.S.A South Korea Medium Human Development Not available Mexico Thailand Brazil Sri Lanka China India Kenya Pakistan Low Human Development Not available Not available Not available Bangladesh 2.9 Not available 88.6 Cote D'Ivoire 5.0 Not available 82.6 Burkina Faso Not available Developing countries Not available World Not available Source: UNDP Human Development Report, Table India's indicators of expenditure on education are also low when compared with those of other low income countries. The 1999/2000 World Development Report states that India spent about 3.4 percent of GDP on education in 1996 compared to an average of 3.9 percent of GNP by all low income countries. In this context, it is revealing to investigate the relationship between GNP per capita and public spending on education. Figure III illustrates the positive relationship between the two. India spends a lower proportion of GNP on education than 'expected' by international standards. Countries with levels of expenditure above that expected by international standards include Ethiopia, Malawi, Kenya and Togo. Thus, in terms of both 'human development status' and per capita income, India fares poorly on account of the proportion of GDP spent on education when compared to other countries. 2.3 PLAN VERSUS NON PLAN EXPENDITURE 2.31 This section examines how 'plan' expenditure on elementary education has changed over the past decade. All expenditures by the central and state governments are classified as either plan or non-plan. Plan expenditures largely finance new 13

14 developmental activities over the five year plan periods. Once the plan period is over, recurring plan expenditure is classified under the non-plan account. Thus while plan expenditure is not the same as non-recurring expenditure, a large proportion of it is used for investment purposes. The ratio of plan to total revenue expenditure on elementary education by GOI and all states combined has increased over the decade. It increased from 11.1 percent in to 21.2 percent in This is an indication that a greater proportion of funding in the sub-sector is being devoted to new programs. Nevertheless, this is not always the case. For example, some states such as Assam, under fiscal duress, spend on items of recurrent expenditure and allocate them under the 'plan' head. 2.4 EXPENDITURE ON ELEMENTARY EDUCATION RELATIVE TO OTHER LEVELS OF EDUCATION 2.41 The pattern of government spending on the Indian education system can be analyzed according to its three tier structure. The bottom rung of the ladder is the elementary education sub-sector. This comprises of Grades I through VIII in most states (Grades I through VII in a few states). Of these, grades I through V comprise primary school in most states and grades VI through VIII are considered upper primary school. However, budget data are not available separately for the primary and upper primary levels. Secondary school consists of grades IX through XII. Finally, the higher and technical education category consists of college and post-graduate education There has been little change in the distribution of public expenditure on education by level since (Table 4). The share of the states' Departments of Education and the central government's Ministry of Human Resource Development's expenditure on education which is devoted to elementary education has risen slightly over the decade from 49.3 to 49.5 percent. The share of the budget allocated to secondary education has fallen very slightly over the decade. Finally, the share of the education budget spent on higher and technical education stayed approximately constant over this period. TABLE 4: PERCENTAGE ALLOCATION OF TOTAL EDUCATION EXPENDITURE BY LEVEL Elementary Secondary Higher and Technical Other Official budget documents do niot provide expenditure data separately for primary and upper primary schooling. An estimate has been made using the ratio of teachers at each level (since teachers' salaries constitute about percent of total expenditure for the elementary education sub-sector). Based on this ratio, approximately 30 percent of total elementary education expenditure was spent on the upper primary sub-sector in compared to 28 percent in

15 2.44 Another issue that may be highlighted is that, as Table 5 demonstrates, the state governments' share of total elementary education expenditure has gradually decreased over the decade from 96.7 percent of total public spending in to 88.9 percent in The trends in spending imply that central spending has increased at a faster rate than state spending. The next chapter discusses central government expenditure on elementary education over the past decade. TABLE 5: GOI AND STATES' SHARE OF REAL SPENDING ON ELEMENTARY EDUCATION (Rs. Million) YEAR GOI ALL STATES TOTAL (3.3) (96.7) (3.3) (96.7) (2.1) (97.9) (2.8) (97.2) * (7.9) (92.1) (8.9) (91.1) (11.1) (88.9) Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages of total. They sum to hundred percent horizontally for each year. 6 Figures for Jammu and Kashniir, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, all North Eastern states except Assam and all union territories are budget estimates. Figures for all other states are actual expenditures. 15

16 CHAPTER THREE: WHAT IS THE ROLE OF THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT IN FINANCING ELEMENTARY EDUCATION? 3.1 The Government of India (GOl) has traditionally financed a small share of elementary education expenditure relative to the state governments. Most of this funding comes in the form of Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS) which are grants in-aid to State governments. However, as the analysis below reveals, the central government's share has grown during the past decade. In addition, central government financing of elementary education is strategically important since it provides a significant portion of the plan expenditure for the sector. 3.1 TOTAL SPENDING BY GOI 3.11 Table 6 demonstrates that total nominal spending by the Government of India (GOI) on elementary education increased over the decade, with a major increase occurring in Fifty percent of this increase came from the introduction of the midday meal scheme as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme. TABLE 6: GOI TOTAL SPENDING ON ELEMENTARY EDUCATION (Rs. Million) (RE) (RE) (BE) Total Total excluding DPEP Total excluding all externally provided assistance Total (real) Not I I I I available 3.12 The increase in nominal spending by GOI on elementary education during the period to was almost tenfold. In contrast, nominal spending by all states and union territories only almost doubled during this period. Real spending by GOI fell in and then rose considerably in Since , it has continued to rise with the introduction of new centrally sponsored schemes. Total real spending increased by almost five times between and 'Real' spending refers to expenditures at constant prices in The consumer price index for industrial workers (which forms the basis of the dearness allowance) is used as the deflator. 16

17 3.2 CENTRALLY SPONSORED SCHEMES 3.21 The central component of GOI plan expenditure on education is in the form of grants-in-aid to states known as Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS). As discussed earlier in Chapter Two, GOI spending (particularly plan spending) on elementary education rose relative to state spending during the 1990s. The GOI's share of total elementary education expenditure has gradually increased over the decade from 3.3 in percent to 11.1 percent in In addition, the GOI's share of plan expenditure on elementary education has increased more rapidly from 29.2 percent to 52.1 percent during the same period, perhaps because of the growing debt servicing burden of the states. Thus, although their share of' overall elementary education expenditure is relatively small, GOI spending has had an increasingly strategic role to play The total nominal expenditure under CSS rose from Rs.2829 million in to Rs million (revised estimates) in The schemes which received the largest share of CSS funding were Operation Blackboard (OB) and the Midday Meal scheme. Table 7 below summarizes the expenditure on account of the various Centrally Sponsored Schemes. TABLE 7: GOI SPENDING: CENTRALLY SPONSORED SCHEMES (Rs. million) Teacher training [14.9] [26.4] [28.4] [21.8] [8.9] [6.4] [3.9] [5.8] Non Formal Education [14.1] [14.3] [46.6] [37.0] [12.7] [10.1] [8.1] [5.8] Operation Blackboard [62.0] [49.9] [7.8] [6.0] [22.3] [17.8] [13.3] [11.1] Midday Meal/Nutritional Support [36.71 [51.0] [47.2] [51.0] DPEP(EAP) [1.5] [26.5] [16.7] [11.7] [24.7] [20.1] Other EAP schemes [7.8] [5.0] [2.2] [2.3] [2.2] [2.2] Other [9.0] [9.4] [7.8] [3.6] [0.4] 0.7] [0.5] [4.0] Total Notes: Figures in parenthesis represent the percent of total CSS expenditure on the particular scheme. EAP refers to 'externally aided programs' During the early part of the decade (1991 to 1993), the major portion of this funding was devoted to the Operation Blackboard (OB) scheme (See Table 7). Operation Blackboard was initiated in 1986 to provide grants to states to construct an additional 17

18 classroom and hire an additional teacher in single-teacher schools. In addition, it mandated that half the newly hired teachers be women. Finally, a portion of the grant was used to finance a standardized package of teaching-learning materials. The scheme was partially successful, particularly in hiring new women teachers and building additional classrooms. However, the mid-term evaluation of the Operation Blackboard scheme, conducted by the National Institute of Rural Development, Hyderabad in 1993 also revealed several weaknesses. The evaluation criticized the quality of teaching learning materials as not being up to the mark. In addition, in several states the distribution of these materials was said to be flawed. Finally, the report argued that teachers were not adequately trained to use the new materials. 8 A more comprehensive evaluation of the scheme by the National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration is currently underway During the mid-1990s, the largest share of CSS funding went towards the Non- Formal Education (NFE) scheme. The Department of Education (DOE) launched the NFE scheme to provide an alternative to the formal schooling system. In particular, the program was aimed at getting working Children and girls into school. The Ninth Plan evaluation of this scheme by the Planning Commission concluded there were several weaknesses in its implementation, including poor quality of inputs and infrastructure. The program was significantly revamped as a result of the recommendations of this study During the latter part of the decade ( to ), a large portion of central funding was allocated to the Midday Meal scheme (later known at 'Nutritional Support to Primary Education'). In fact, in as much as 51 percent of the total funding from CSS was allocated to the Midday Meal scheme. Several studies have concluded that the scheme has been somewhat successful in increasing enrollments in school, particularly that of girls (Dreze et al (1999), Kaul et al.(1999), Sipahimalani (1999)). However, an evaluation of this program by the Operations Research Group in 1999 is less favorable and cites a negligible impact on attendance rates and delays in distribution of food grains Since , the District Primary Education Program (DPEP) has also provided a substantial portion of the CSS funds to the states. Amongst the externally aided projects, DPEP's funding has been the most significant. The initial evaluations of this ongoing program have found it to be successful in raising enrollments, particularly that of girls, and training teachers while building schools, classroom and hiring teachers. Since this project is ongoing, a final evaluation is awaited In addition to the Centrally Sponsored Schemes of the Department of Education, there are some allocations made on the capital account for construction of school buildings under schemes of a few other departments. The most significant of these is the Jawahar Rozgar Yojna (JRY) in the Rural Development Department. Unfortunately, it is 8 S.K.Singh and S. Rajakutti. "Implementation of Educational Policy in India: The Case of OB Scheme in Madhya Pradesh" in Journal of Educational Planning and Administration, Volume XII, no. 2. NIEPA, New Delhi, April

19 very difficult to account for all these expenditures when computing total expenditure by GOI on education. This is because schemes such as the JRY do not allocate a certain proportion of funds for school construction. They give a block grant to local government bodies and the amount allocated to school construction is left to their discretion. Almost all studies of elementary education financing thus do not account for the expenditure on schooling under schemes such as the JRY. In order to ascertain whether accounting for this expenditure might affect the trends discussed in this study, it is possible to estimate approximately the funds under JRY spent on school building construction. Total expenditure in were Rs million i.e percent of GDP. In this figure was Rs million or about 0.4 percent of GDP. In , for example, 39,000 school buildings were built from JRY funds. Assuming a rough average cost of Rs.2.5 lakh per school building, the total amount spent would be approximately Rs.9520 million or about 0.13 percent of GDP. This figure has declined slightly over the decade. 9 9 These figures are obtained from "Rural Development Statistics, 1998" (National Institute of Rural Development). 19

20 CHAPTER FOUR: WHAT IS THE ROLE OF THE VARIOUS STATE GOVERNMENTS IN FINANCING ELEMENTARY EDUCATION? 4.1 State governments provide the major portion of the funds spent on elementary education (as discussed earlier in Chapter One). While their combined share has been decreasing in the 1990s, they still provide almost 90 percent of the public finances. The circumstances and experiences of the states vary widely both in terms of elementary educational outcomes and financing. It is thus important to analyze the patterns in the government financing of elementary education in the various states. Sections 4.1 and 4.2 focus on nominal expenditures and their relationship with national income and revenue expenditures of the states. This analysis is supported by studying the trends in 'real' expenditures in Section SPENDING RELATIVE TO GSDP AND TOTAL REVENUE EXPENDITURE 4.11 It is important to study the trends in state government spending on elementary education relative to state domestic products and total state revenue expenditures. This is a reflection of the financial commitment of the respective state governments to this sector. In addition, it is also indicative of whether the spending has kept pace with the economic progress in a state. It must be kept in mind, of course, that some states such as Kerala and Tamil Nadu have very high elementary education enrollment rates and low birth rates. Thus the increase in spending required in these states would be much lower than that required in most of the rest of the country. The relationship between spending and enrollment is discussed further in Section The total spending on elementary education (in nominal terms) by all states and union territories combined increased from Rs.84,194 million in to Rs.160,555 million in , an increase of 90.7 percent (See Table 8). The states with growth in total spending higher than the all India average were Jammu and Kashmir, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Haryana, Gujarat, Karnataka, Himachal Pradesh, Assam, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh (See Table 8). While the lower growth in spending in Kerala and Tamil Nadu may be justified to some extent by high existing enrollment rates, the low growth rate in the other states points to low financial commitments of the respective state governments to this sector. However, these figures on state spending have to be analyzed keeping a few caveats in mind. First, these figures do not include any untied grants given by state governments to the districts. To the extent that these grants are spent on elementary education, the figures here would underestimate state spending. Some states such as West Bengal give a higher proportion of their budgets as untied grants. In addition, due to the non-availability of data, the spending figures here do not include spending by departments other than the Education departments of the states. In certain states (such as Tamil Nadu) spending on elementary education by other departments such as the Welfare department is non-trivial. 20

21 TABLE 8: TOTAL SPENDING ON ELEMENTARY EXPENDITURE BY STATE: 1991/ /98 (Rs. million) STATE Percent increase (91/92 to 96/97)1 Jammu & Kashmir n/a Rajasthan Haryana Maharashtra Gujarat Kamataka Himachal Pradesh Assam Uttar Pradesh n/a 99.9 Madhya Pradesh 5945, Total: States/Union n/a 90.7 territories Bihar Orissa Punjab n/a 84.8 Kerala Andhra Pradesh West Bengal Tamil Nadu As discussed earlier in Chapter Two, the proportion of GDP spent by the states collectively on elementary education has, however, declined over the decade from 1.52 percent in to 1.25 percent in Figure IV reveals that the proportion of Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) spent by states collectively on elementary education has also declined continuously over the decade The states where the proportion of GSDP spent on elementary education fell over the period 1991/92 to 1997/98 are Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Punjab, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal. The states where this proportion rose are Bihar, Haryana, Kamataka, Orissa, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh.' Table 9 illustrates this point. In Bihar, however, the GSDP itself rose very little over the decade (in fact by the least amount when compared with all the other states). Thus, while the 10 Data for Janmmu & Kashmir, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, and 'All States/Union Territories' are for 1996/97 since only budget estimates were available for 1997/ is used as the end of the period instead of 1997/98 since 'actuals' are not available for all states and union territories collectively for 1997/98. Thus comparisons of how well states have done relative to the national average cannot be done for this year. 12 Data on Assam, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir were not available for this purpose. 21

22 proportion of GSDP spent on elementary education rose, this did not translate into a substantial rise in real expenditure (see Table 12 below). TABLE 9: EXPENDITURE BY STATES ON ELEMENTARY EDUCATION AS A PERCENTAGE OF GSDP" STATE Bihar Rajasthan Kamataka Uttar Pradesh X Orissa Haryana Punjab Kerala All states/union territories Maharashtra Madhya Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Gujarat Tamil Nadu West Bengal Of the states where the proportion of GSDP spent on elementary education fell over the decade, Punjab, West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh spent the lowest proportion of GSDP on elementary education amongst the major states at the beginning of the decade as well, reflecting poorly on these states' ability and willingness to spend enough on this sector In addition to spending in relation to state incomes, it is also important to analyze the spending on elementary education relative to total expenditure by states. Table 10 summarizes the changing proportion of total revenue expenditure spent on elementary education by the states over the past decade. 13 Information on Assam, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir was not available. The states are listed in descending order of the increase in percent of GSDP spent on elementary education. 14 Figures for Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and 'All states/union territories' are for since 'actuals' for were not available. 22

23 TABLE 10: EXPENDITURE BY STATES ON ELEMENTARY EDUCATION AS A PERCENTAGE OF REVENUE EXPENDITURE 15 STATE Increased percentage of revenue expe nditure Rajasthan Maharashtra Bihar Assam Punjab Tamil Nadu Guj arat Karnataka~~J Decreased percentage of revenue exp nditure Uttar Pradesh Orissa Kerala Madhya Pradesh Haryana Andhra Pradesh West Bengal The states where the proportion of revenue expenditure spent on elementary education fell over the period to are Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. The states where this proportion rose are Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Punjab, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu. Once again, total revenue expenditure itself rose very little over the decade in Bihar compared to the other states Thus states that have unambiguously demonstrated an increasing commitment to elementary education (i.e. where the proportion of GSDP as well as the proportion of revenue expenditure spent on elementary education rose over the period) are Karnataka and Rajasthan. Despite this increase, however, Karnataka still spent a lower proportion of revenue expenditure on elementary education than eight other major states. Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal decreased their spending on elementary education not only relative to GSDP but also relative to their total revenue expenditure Low and falling proportions of GSDP and revenue expenditure spent on elementary education reveal either decreasing commitment to the sector and/or increasing fiscal problems in the state leading to cuts in spending on the social sectors. In fact both Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal have experienced particularly acute and increasing 15 Information on Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmiir was not available. The states are listed in descending order of the increase in percent of revenue expenditure spent on elementary education. 23

24 fiscal stress over the past decade. While Andhra Pradesh has embarked on a reform process to alleviate the situation, West Bengal has not done this as yet. The impact of the fiscal reforrns in Andhra Pradesh on elementary education remains to be seen. The exception in this case is, of course, Kerala where high enrollment rates have already been achieved in the elementary grades, thus explaining the need for smaller increases in financial allocations to the sector. Thus the decreasing proportion of GSDP and revenue expenditure spent on this sector in Kerala may be justified unlike in Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal, all of which are educationally backward states. Nevertheless, further analysis of the 'quality' of schooling in states like Kerala would be required to explore whether the current levels of funding are adequate to ensure good quality. 4.2 PLAN EXPENDITURE 4.21 Another revealing indicator of state governnent financing of elementary education is the proportion of total expenditure that is plan expenditure. This indicates the extent of spending on developmental expenditure. The share of total expenditure on this sector devoted to plan expenditure by all states collectively has steadily risen over the decade. States with the highest proportion of total revenue expenditure that was plan expenditure in were Assam, Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan and Karnataka. Those with the lowest proportion of total revenue expenditure devoted for plan purposes in were Punjab, Kerala, West Bengal and Bihar. All states except Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal spent a higher proportion of their revenue expenditure on plan expenditure in when compared with (See Table 11). This may indicate less attention given to developmental expenditures in this sector by these three state governments. 24

25 TABLE 11: RATIO OF PLAN TO TOTAL REVENUE EXPENDITURE ON ELEMENTARY EDUCATION BY STATE STATE (E) ASSAM HIMACHAL PRADESH RAJASTHAN KARNATAKA JAMMU & KASHMIR MADHYA PRADESH HARYANA UTTAR PRADESH MAHARASTHRA ANDHRA PRADESH ORISSA TAMIL NADU GUJARAT BIHAR WEST BENGAL KERALA PUNJAB ALL STATES & UNION TERRITORIES GOI + STATES & UNION TERRITORIES 4.22 Bashir's study of government financing of elementary education analyzes the role of Centrally Sponsored Schemes in total plan expenditure in some detail, including the extent of dependence of each state on this source of finance. She concludes that the level of dependence has been consistently high in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa and Uttar Pradesh; perhaps revealing a relative lack of commitment by the governments of these states. 4.3 REAL EXPENDITURE 4.31 All the above indicators deal with nominal expenditure on elementary education by state governments. It is, in fact, more important to study changes in the 'real' expenditure on elementary education, thus taking into account inflation. Total real spending on elementary education by the states rose from Rs.38,445 million in to Rs.49,701 million in (in 1982 prices), an increase of 29.2 percent. (See Table 12). 25

26 TABLE 12: TOTAL REAL SPENDING ON ELEMENTARY EXPENDITURE (Rs. Million) STATE Percent change (91/92 to 97/98)17 Jammu & Kashmir n/a Himachal Pradesh Rajasthan Maharashtra Haryana Karnataka Assam Orissa Total: States/Union Territories Gujarat Uttar Pradesh n/a 28.0 Bihar Punjab n/a 18.3 Kerala Madhya Pradesh Andhra Pradesh TamilNadu West Bengal l The states where total real spending increased by the most were Janimu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Haryana and Kamataka, all of which had an increase of more than forty percent. As discussed in Sections 4.1 and 4.2 above, the analysis in this section also substantiates the fact that Rajasthan demonstrated an increased financial commitment to elementary education during this decade. While the percentage of revenue expenditure spent on the sector by Karnataka remained lower than many states, the proportion of GSDP spent and real spending nevertheless increased considerably. Maharashtra also demonstrated an increased financial commitment to this sector. Not only did real spending increase by 45 percent, the proportion of revenue expenditure spent on the sector also rose to 10 percent. Himachal Pradesh had a highest percent increase in real expenditures. Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal stand out as having demonstrated a particularly low (and decreasing over the decade) degree of financial commitment to the sector with respect to all indicators considered. The analysis of real expenditures above reaffirms this fact as well. The 16 Figures for Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, and Uttar Pradesh are for since 'actuals' for were not available. 17 Figures for Jarmnu and Kashmir, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, all North Eastern states except Assam and all union territories are budget estimates. Figures for all other states are actuals for These are summed to arrive at the all India figure. 26

27 discussion on linkages with enrollment rates in Section 4.4 below shows the impact of this in terrns of low enrollment growth rates Real spending per student is a good reflection of how state expenditure has kept pace with enrollment increases. Real spending per student by all states/union territories increased from Rs in to Rs in a 18.6 percent increase. As Figure V and Table 13 illustrate, all states with the exception of Madhya Pradesh spent more (in constant prices) per student in when compared to TABLE 13: REAL SPENDING PER STUDENT ON ELEMENTARY EDUCATION (R./year) STATE "' Percent Change Real Spending per Student JAMMU & KASHMIR HIMACHAL PRADESH KERALA ASSAM GUJARAT KARNATAKA ==AHARASHTRA INDIA HARYANA ORISSA TAMIL NADU UTTAR PRADESH PUNJAB WEST BENGAL RAJASTHAN BIHAR ANDHRA PRADESH MADHYA PRADESH Amongst the states discussed above which substantially increased their investment in elementary education, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka and Maharashtra also increased real spending per student. The growth in real spending per student as well as the absolute amount spent per student in real terms was very low in Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal; again emphasizing the decreasing financial commitment discussed earlier. While real spending increased substantially in Rajasthan, real spending per student grew little. However, this state had a higher than average surge in enrollments during the same period. Thus the state's success in increasing enrollments must be noted. The highest level of real expenditure per student in was in IB Figures for Janmmu and Kashmnir, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, all North Eastern states except Assam and all union territories are budget estirates. Figures for all other states are actuals for These are summed to arrive at the all India figure. 27

28 Himachal Pradesh. The lowest level of real expenditure per student was in West Bengal Boxes 1 and 2 below briefly explore financing of elementary education in Andhra Pradesh and Kamataka. These serve as illustrative examples of how government financing of this sector has changed over the decade in specific states. 28

29 BOX 1: NOTE ON ANDHRA PRADESH'S FINANCING OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN THE 1990s * The proportion of total revenue expenditure as well as GSDP spent by Andhra Pradesh on elementary education has fallen over the past decade.. The proportion of total revenue expenditure spent on elementary education in A.P. fell from 7.68 percent to 5.86 percent. The proportion of GSDP spent on elementary education fell from 1.2 percent to 1.06 percent. * Real plan expenditures by the state on elementary education have fluctuated considerably over the decade in Andhra Pradesh. They rose until after which they fell until , at which time they rose again until The share of centrally sponsored schemes and external funds in elementary education plan expenditures is hi'gh in Andhra Pradesh relative to other states. In fact, in , the total central funds allocated to Andhra Pradesh under CSS were greater than the state's own plan expenditure, which has been very low over the decade. (Bashir, 2000).. Government real spending per student rose slightly in Andhra Pradesh from Rs in to Rs in However, it rose by far less than the national average. * In fact, Andhra Pradesh's nominal spending per student in elementary school was the lowest of all major states except West Bengal in both and all states except West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh at the end of this period, in Enrollments in the elementary sub-sector rose by 7 percent during this period in Andhra Pradesh. The national average rise in enrollment (across states) in the elementary education sub-sector during this period was 9 percent. Hence the modest increase in real spending per student in Andhra Pradesh cannot be attributed to an unusual surge in enrollments. * A considerable proportion of enrolled children in Andhra Pradesh go to private unaided schools. The estimates vary from 2.7 percent of enrolled children in Grades I-VUI (Sixth Educational Survey, NCERT) to 10.2 percent of enrolled six to fourteen year olds (NCAER Survey: 1994). 29

30 BOX 2: NOTE ON GOVERNMENT OF KARNATAKA'S FINANCING OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN THE 1990s * The proportion of total revenue expenditure as well as GSDP spent by Karnataka on elementary education has risen over the past decade. * The proportion of total revenue expenditure spent on elementary education in Kamataka rose from 9.4 percent to 9.52 percent. This is still, however, below the proportion spent by eight other major states. The proportion of GSDP spent on elementary education rose considerably from 1.56 percent to 1.72 percent. However, the proportion of GSDP spent on education as a whole declined slightly. Thus the increasing share of GSDP spent on elementary education seems to have been financed by reallocation within the education sector (away from higher education).. The real growth rate of plan expenditure in Karnataka was over 16 percent p.a. during the 1990s. This substantial growth coupled with relatively high plan expenditure at the start of the decade has made Karnataka one of the states with the highest level of plan expenditure on elementary education (Bashir, 2000). * Karnataka is one of the seven states which have hired a significant number of additional teachers from the state's plan funds (Bashir, 2000).. Government real spending per student rose from Rs in to Rs in in Kamataka. In fact, it rose by greater than the national average. * The increase in real spending per student occurred despite a substantial increase in enrollment in the elementary sub-sector during this period in Karnataka. Enrollment rose by 15 percent. The national average rise in enrollment in the elementary education sub-sector during this period was 9 percent. Hence the increase in real spending per student in Kamataka can be attributed to an increase in total real spending in the sub-sector rather than a decrease in enrollment. * A considerable proportion of enrolled children in Karnataka go to private unaided schools. The estimates vary from 3.4% of enrolled children in Grades I-VIII (Sixth Educational Survey, NCERT) to 9.6% of enrolled six to fourteen year olds (NCAER Survey: 1994). Both surveys report these figures to be close to the national average. 30

31 4.4 EXPENDITURES AND ENROLLMENTS 4.41 The above discussion focuses on government expenditure on elementary education. It is crucial to link expenditures with educational outcomes in the various states in order to answer the following question - do more children go to school in states that spend more on elementary education? Gross Enrollment Ratios (GERs) are typically used (in the absence of information on net enrollment) as indicators of enrollment status in the states. Unfortunately, it is problematic to use GERs available from government documents. The changing proportions of overage and underage children included in the GERs makes it difficult to draw any systematic causal linkages between expenditures and outcomes. For all states except Rajasthan, the GER was lower at the end of the decade than at the beginning. The GER could fall, for example if the number of underage/overage children attending primary school declines. It could also fall, on the other hand, if the drop out rate of children of the appropriate age group rises. It could fall if the cohort of school going aged children rises. The reasons for this decline are not clear. GERs have thus not been used in the analysis here This paper uses growth rates in total enrollments in Grades I to VIII over the past decade as an indicator of the progress made by a state in enrolling more children in elementary school. 19 Figure VII plots the percentage increase in total real expenditures by state governments on elementary education and the percentage increase in elementary education enrollments over the past decade as a scatter diagram. Each point represents a state. As the figure illustrates, states where real spending rose more were the ones, in general, where enrollments grew faster. In fact, when the percentage increase in enrollment over the decade is regressed on percentage increase in real spending on elementary education by states, it is statistically significant at 10 percent. Thus the changes in spending were a significant determinant of changes in enrollment in states in the 1990s. The trend line in Figure VI displays this positive relationship. TABLE 14: STATE GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURES AND ENROLLMENT GROWTH Percentage growth in real Percentage growth in enrollment state spending High Low High Haryana, Jammu & Assam, Gujarat, Himachal Kashmir, Kamataka, Pradesh Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan Low Bihar, Madhya Pradesh Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal 4.43 The table above classifies states according to growth in real spending on elementary education and growth in enrollments. The majority of states demonstrate the close relationship between financing and enrollments. In fact, as discussed earlier in this 19 MHRD. Selected Educational Statistics, Various Years. 31

32 chapter, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Rajasthan have substantially increased their financial commitmcnt to elementary education over the decade (in terms of the indicators discussed such as proportion of GSDP and revenue expenditure spent on the sector, total nominal and real expenditures etc.). The effects on enrollment are evident. Rajasthan, a traditionally educationally backward state, had the highest spurt in enrollments (45 percent increase over the decade). 20 Of course the results here must be interpreted in the context of the existing status of elementary enrollments at the beginning of the decade in the particular states. As mentioned earlier in the chapter, there is good reason for enrollment increases (and to some extent spending increases) to be low in Kerala and Tamil Nadu since these states are closer to universal elementary enrollments and have lower fertility rates The low growth rate of enrollments in Himachal Pradesh is surprising since recent reports (including the PROBE report) have cited Himachal Pradesh as significantly increasing enrollments in recent years. In the data used here, total enrollments grew substantially until after which they seem to have mysteriously fallen. The above analysis is also limited by the fact that other factors affecting enrollment are not taken into account here. That school enrollments grew by 29 percent in Madhya Pradesh despite a lower than average real expenditure growth rate may be explained by a host of other factors which are beyond the scope of the simple regression analysis used here. Also, as mentioned earlier, there is higher spending by lower levels of government (such as the village panchayats in some states and this is not captured in the expenditure figures cited in this paper. In fact, Madhya Pradesh is an example of such a state. Nevertheless, the strong relationship between financing of elementary education and outcomes such as enrollment evident here highlights, from the policy perspective, one of the main reasons for states such as Andhra Pradesh continuing to have relatively low enrollment rates According to World Bank staff estimates, three quarters of children who are out of school live in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. Of these seven states, the preceding discussion highlights Rajasthan as having demonstrated greater financial commitments to elementary education in the 1990s. On the other hand, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal had low growth in real expenditure on elementary education and also decreased their spending relative to GSDP and total revenue expenditure. As can be seen in Table 14 above, Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal did have low enrollment increases While acknowledging that there are limitations to the financial data used here and that there are several dimensions besides financing that affect enrollment rates, the above analysis points to the critical need to spend more on this sector, particularly in the educationally backward states, to improve capacity and quality and attract students to school. 2 0 The high growth rate of enrollments in Bihar needs to be investigated further since this is not corroborated by field experiences. 32

33 CHAPTER FIVE: HOW SIGNIFICANT IS THE FINANCIAL CONTRIBUTION OF HOUSEHOLDS TO ELEMENTARY EDUCATION? 5.1 The previous chapters have focussed on government financing of elementary education by both the central government and the various state governments. In addition, however, households also spend a considerable amount on the education of their children. It is thus important to analyze the trends in household financing of elementary education as well. 5.1 ENROLLMENT IN PRIVATE SCHOOLS 5.11 In recent years, growing numbers of children are being enrolled in private schools (both aided by the government and unaided). Parents spending on sending their children to unaided private schools is one manifestation of the private financing of elementary education. In addition, parents often spend a considerable sum on children who are enrolled even in government and aided schools. A large proportion of this expenditure is on books and uniforms. It is interesting to also investigate the role of private financing for children attending government schools Table 15 below summarizes the data for the proportion of children enrolled in private elementary schools. Data from three different sources are used. Unfortunately, there is considerable variation in the figures quoted in these different sources. Nevertheless, the data are indicative of the fact that a non-trivial proportion of children do attend private school. In particular, the NSSO and NCAER survey data indicate that 7.4 percent and 9.8 percent of children, respectively, went to private unaided schools. 2 1 The states with the highest proportion of children in private unaided schools were Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, and Punjab according to both surveys. The NCERT data (from the NCERT 6 th educational survey for 1993) shows a higher proportion of children in private unaided schools in Uttar Pradesh but an all India average of only 3.6 percent. Overall 8.4 percent of children were in private aided schools according to the NSS. The was particularly high in Kerala (41.2 percent). It is not clear why the figures for enrollment in private aided schools in particular differs considerably among the three surveys. 21 The NCAER data are for 1994 while NSSO data are for 1995/96. 33

34 TABLE 15: ENROLLMENTS IN PRIVATE SCHOOLS 22 STATE PRIVATE AIDED PRIVATE UNAIDED NCERT NCAER NSS NCERT NCAER NSS ANDHRA PRADESH ASSAM 2.0 n/a n/a 0.4 BIHAR GUJARAT HARYANA HIMACHAL PRADESH KARNATAKA KERALA MADHYA PRADESH MAHARASHTRA ORISSA PUNJAB RAJASTHAN TAMIL NADU UTTAR PRADESH WEST BENGAL ALL INDIA According to Sipahimalani (1999), who used the NCAER survey data, the proportion of children attending both private aided and unaided schools rises as the per capita income of the household they belong to rises (See Table 16). Nevertheless, even in the low income brackets of per capita income below Rs.2000 a year, 3.8 percent of six to fourteen year old children were enrolled in private unaided schools. These figures point to the fact that private expenditure on schooling cannot be ignored even for the poorest section of the population. 22 NCERT and NSS data refer to enrollment in Classes I - VIII. NCAER data refers to proportion of enrolled 6-14 year olds by type of school. 34

35 TABLE 16: TYPE OF SCHOOL ATTENDED BY INCOME GROUP 2 3 PER CAPITA PERCENT PERCENT IN PERCENT IN PERCENT IN INCOME NEVER GOVT PA SCHOOLS PUA (Rs./year) ENROLLED SCHOOLS SCHOOLS < >=2000 & <4000 >=4000 & <6000 >=6000 & <8000 1_2_9 >= HOUSEHOLD SPENDING BY TYPE OF SCHOOL 5.21 Table 17 summarizes the average spending per student by type of school as reported in the NCAER survey.24 The all India average reveals that parents who send their children to private unaided schools spent more than twice as much than those sending their children to government school. In states such as Himachal Pradesh and Haryana, households spent over Rs.1000 per year per student even for those enrolled in government schools. 23 These data are obtained from the NCAER household survey (1994). The table is taken from Sipahimnalani (1999). 24 The household expenditure data is available separately for private unaided and government schools; but not for private aided schools. 35

36 TABLE 17: HOUSEHOLD SPENDING PER STUDENT AGED 6-14 IN SCHOOL (RS./STUDENT PER YEAR) STATE Private Government Unaided ANDHRA PRADESH ASSAM BIHAR GUJARAT HARYANA HIMACHAL PRADESH JAMMU & KASHMIR Not available Not available KARNATAKA KERALA MADHYA PRADESH MAHARASHTRA ORISSA PUNJAB RAJASTHAN TAMIL NADU UTTAR PRADESH WEST BENGAL Total: States/Union territories For students going to government schools, it is possible to do a simple analysis of the degree of public subsidy provided. Table 18 summarizes the data for per student spending in 1994/95 by state governments as well as by households for each major state. The data for per student spending by state governments are the same data used for the analysis in previous chapters (from government budget documents). The data for household spending per student in government school is the same data used above (from the NCAER survey in 1994). Thus, while these data are not strictly comparable (since the latter is a sample survey), they are indicative of the extent of private spending and public subsidy. 36

37 TABLE 18: EXTENT OF PUBLIC SUBSIDY IN GOVERNMENT SCHOOLS STATE State Household Total Share of state government government _ MAHARASHTRA ORISSA GUJARAT ASSAM ANDHRA PRADESH KARNATAKA BIHAR TAMIL NADU MADHYA PRADESH India KERALA HARYANA RAJASTHAN UTTAR PRADESH PLNJAB HIMACHAL PRADESH WEST BENGAL JAMMU & KASHMIR Not available Not available 5.23 The final column in the table above calculates the extent of the public subsidy provided to children in government elementary schools. The share of the state government in financing these children's education is computed by dividing the state government per student expenditure by the total expenditure per student (state government plus household). The average public subsidy provided in the country, according to this calculation, is 56.7 percent. Thus about 43 percent of the education provided to children in government elementary schools may be financed by households if the assumptions in these calculations are valid. 26 This is a surprisingly high figure since government elementary schools are expected to provide 'free' education. This analysis indicates that public education is, in reality, not provided free. In fact it is only a subsidy provided to households to send their children to government schools These results also raise the question of public provision versus public financing of elementary education. There are, of course, strong arguments to be made for govenment financing to send children to elementary school. However, it is less clear why these schools have to be provided and managed by the government. Particularly if parents are paying a considerable amount anyway, a possible option instead of subsidizing 25 Note that Central Government expenditures are ignored here for the sake of simplicity. 26 This figure is higher than the one cited in Chapter One since the data used here are from the NCAER survey while Chapter One uses NSSO data since this is available for higher levels of education as well. Nevertheless the extent of household financing of elementary education is estimated to be in this range of about 38 to 43%. 37

38 government schools would be to give parents from poorer households a cash subsidy for education. They could use this to choose which type of school to send their children to. While this would be a difficult choice to make politically, a further analysis of this issue would be useful. There was sizeable variation in the degree of public subsidy provided in government elementary schools across states. States with the lowest extent of public subsidy were Haryana, West Bengal, Himachal Pradesh, and Punjab. The states with the highest extent of public subsidy (and thus lower shares of private financing) were Maharashtra, Orissa, Assam and Gujarat While the discussion above juxtaposes the two sources of financing of elementary education, the same data may also be used to estimate the magnitude of the total resources devoted to elementary education in government schools. Since education in these schools is financed by both the state government and households, it is possible to estimate the total amount spent per student. As Table 18 reveals, the total amount spent on average on a student in a government elementary school was Rs a year. This is almost the same amount spent on a student in a private elementary school Finally, it is also instructive to explore what this money is spent on. Table 19 illustrates the proportion of household expenditure spent on different items in all three types of schools (these results are taken from Sipahimalani (1999) who uses the NCAER data for this tabulation). As the table below illustrates, over 75 percent of household expenditure was spent on books and stationary in government schools. While this proportion was high in private unaided schools as well, high proportions were also spent on fees and private coaching. TABLE 19: ENROLLMENT AND PER STUDENT HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURE IN RURAL INDIA BY SCHOOL TYPE GOVERNMENT PRIVATE UNAIDED Percentage of children enrolled 69.0% 9.8% Average household expenditure per student Rs.346 Rs.1262 Proportion of expenditure on books and stationary 76.3% 47.0% Proportion of expenditure on exam and tuition fees 12.6% 34.5% Proportion of expenditure on transportation 1.5% 6.0% Proportion of expenditure on private coaching 7.9% 9.2% Proportion of expenditure on board and lodging 1.7% 3.3% Proportion of per capita income devoted to per student 14.1% 24.6% expenditure 5.27 This discussion elucidates the significance of private financing of elementary education in India. It suggests that the role of household spending might usefully be taken into account in all policy decisions regarding elementary education. At present, it is usually ignored. 38

39 CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS: WHERE DO WE GO FROM HERE? 6.1 The overall picture of elementary education financing in the 1990s presents cause for concern. The GOI, together with the state governments, has repeatedly expressed its commitment to education and attaining the goal of spending 6 percent of GDP on education by In reality, rather than increasing the share from 3.65 percent at the beginning of the 1990s, the share has fallen to 3.48 percent in 1996/97. When compared with international norms, India spends a lower proportion of GNP on education than countries with similar per capita incomes. 6.2 There have been several studies to assess the financial requirements for universalizing elementary education. The resources required are estimated to be a real increase in expenditure of 8 percent a year (World Bank (1997) estimates) for getting all 6-10 year olds into primary school in twelve years and an additional 0.7 percent of GDP per year for the next ten years to get all 6-14 year olds into school (Mazumdar Committee report (1999)). The real increase in GOI and state governments' total expenditure on elementary education was 5.3 percent a year over the period to and then rose to 5.8 percent a year when expenditures are taken into account. 27 The World Bank report (1997) states that the resources required to universalize primary education by 2007, discussed above, would be met if the government expenditure reached the target of 6 percent of GDP. This assumed that GDP would grow at a rate of 5 percent per year and primary education would receive a constant share of the education budget; both realistic assumptions. In fact, the total proportion of GDP spent on education by the Government of India and all state governments collectively has fallen in the 1990s. The proportion of GDP spent by government on elementary education has also declined over the past decade. Considering the gap between current enrollments and attainments, and the goal of universalizing elementary education, this is clearly not enough While the Government of India has, in fact, spent an increasing proportion of GDP on elementary education (from 0.05 percent in to 0.16 percent in ), states have collectively spent a falling proportion (from 1.52 percent in to 1.28 percent in ). In addition, the Government of India has taken increasingly greater responsibility for financing plan expenditures on elementary education over the decade. Government of India funds include donor funds for elementary education. The proportion of total plan expenditures by governments 27 Actual expenditures are used for all states except Goa, Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, all North - Eastern states (except Assam) and all union territories for which budget estimates are used in the absence of availability of actual expenditures. 28 One caveat to keep in mind is the relatively new practice of hiring para teachers at a lower salary when compared to regular teachers. The mnarginal cost of educating children will thus be lower in states where this practice has begun. This paper does not account for the impact of these lower salaries on expenditures required for universalization. However some crude calculations reveal that even if all new teachers that were hired were para teachers at one third the salary given to regular teachers, the real increase in expenditure needed to universalize primary education would be about percent a year. 39

40 accounted for by central government spending rose from 29.2 percent in to 52.1 percent in This spending has been focussed on a few Centrally Sponsored Schemes. 6.4 States vary in their commitment to elementary education. States that have unambiguously demonstrated an increasing financial commitment to elementary education in the past decade are Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Rajasthan. Total real spending increased by more than 40% in all four states between 1991/92 and 1997/98 - amongst the highest increases in the country. The proportion of revenue expenditure spent on elementary education rose over the decade in all these states. While the rate of increase was the highest in Rajasthan and Maharashtra, the increase was more modest in Karnataka. 29 It must also be kept in mind that eight states spent a higher proportion of revenue expenditure on elementary education than Karnataka in despite this increase. Rajasthan and Kamataka also had amongst the highest increases in the proportion of GSDP spent on elementary education. While this proportion actually fell slightly in Maharashtra, the state had one of the highest increases in GSDP over the decade. Real spending per student also rose by more than 20 percent in Himachal Pradesh, Maharashtra and Kamataka - amongst the highest increases in the country. While the increase was small in Rajasthan (5.5 percent), the huge surge in enrollments in this state may account for this. 6.5 At the other extreme of the spectrum (i.e. where the least increases in expenditure on elementary education occurred) are Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal. These states had the smallest real increases in expenditure on elementary education over the decade. Real spending per student also rose by amongst the lowest rates in the country in these three states. In addition, all three states decreased their spending on elementary education relative to GSDP and total revenue expenditure. 6.6 The preliminary analysis here suggests that a strong relationship between state government financing and enrollment increases exists. In general, higher growth in state government spending was correlated with higher growth in total enrollments in the states. This underscores the importance of increasing financing to achieve the desired objective of universalizing elementary education particularly in the educationally backward states. 6.7 Finally, the study explores the role of private or household expenditure on elementary education. In recent years, growing numbers of children are being in enrolled in private unaided schools. In , the National Sample Survey stated that 7.4 percent of children in Classes I - VIII attended private unaided schools. Also, parents often spend a considerable sum on children who are enrolled-even in government schools. The total amount spent on average on a student in a government elementary school in 1994 was Rs (the sum of government and household spending). This is almost the same amount as was spent by households on a student in a private unaided elementary school. Wnile the education of children in government elementary schools is certainly publicly subsidized, this is not a 100 percent subsidy. In fact, about 43 percent of the 29 This information is not available for Himachal Pradesh. 40

41 total cost of providing and accessing government elementary schools is spent by households. It is critical that government policymakers recognize the role of households in financing elementary education and the effects which the required private expenditures may have on constraining demand for education by the poor. This is essential to be able to prioritize and target public spending on this sector to provide free or very cheap education to the poorest households. 6.8 The studies which estimate the resources required to achieve universalization of elementary education point to the need for higher rates of growth in real expenditures than have emerged in the past decade. While a few states have substantially stepped up resources for elementary education, many of the educationally backward states need to substantially increase investments. The central government, households and especially individual state governments have to increase their pooled resources in order to make universalization a goal that can be achieved in the near future. 41

42 REFERENCES Bashir, Sajitha. Government Expenditures on Elementary Education in the Nineties. Report submitted to the European Commission. New Delhi, January Dreze, Jean and Geeta Kingdon. School Participation in Rural India. Forthcoming, Review of Development Economics, Government of India. Ministry of Human Resource Development. Selected Educational Statistics. Department of Education, Planning, Monitoring and Statistics Division. New Delhi, Various years, Government of India. Ministry of Human Resource Development. Analysis of Budgeted Expenditure on Education. Department of Education, Planning, Monitoring and Statistics Division. New Delhi, Various years, Government of India. National Sample Survey Organization. Attending an Educational Institution in India: Its Level, Nature and Cost. NSS Fifty-second Round. New Delhi, Hinchliffe, Keith. India: Education Finance, Federalism and Economic Adjustment. World Bank, New Delhi, Kaul, Venita, Suneeta Singh and Kalpana Seethepalli. National Program of Nutritional Support to Primary Education. Manuscript, National Council of Educational Research and Training. Sixth All India Educational Survey: National Tables, Volume VI. New Delhi, National Institute of Rural Development. Rural Development Statistics, New Delhi, Probe Team. Public Report on Basic Education in India. Oxford University Press, New Delhi, Shariff, Abusaleh. India Human Development Report: A Profile of Indian States in the 1990s. National Council of Applied Economic Research. Oxford University Press, New Delhi, Singh, S.K. and S. Rajakutti. "Implementation of Educational Policy in India: The Case Of Operation Blackboard Scheme in Madhya Pradesh," in Journal of Educational Planning and Administration. XII (2); NIEPA, New Delhi, April Sipahimalani, Vandana. Household Educational Expenditures and School Choice in Rural India: An Empirical Analysis. Ph.D. Dissertation, Yale University, New Haven, Tilak, J.B.G. Financing Elementary Education in India in the 1990s. Paper presented to 42

43 Second National Workshop on EFA: 2000 Assessment, New Delhi, January, United Nations Development Program. Human DevelopmentReport. New York, World Bank. Entering the 21st Century: World Development Report 1999/2000. Oxford University Press. New York, World Bank. Primary Education in India. Washington D.C., World Bank. States Database. Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Unit, New Delhi,

44 ANNEX I

45 FIGURE 1: PERCENTAGE OF GDP SPENT ON ELEMENTARY EDUCATION BY GOI + ALL STATES Tta ul ~ ~ ~~~~~~~YA U..Y

46 FIGURE II: REAL PUBLIC SPENDING PER STUDENT g i E g - 2" YEAR

47 Figure 111: Spending on education as a percentage of GNP relative to GNP per capita ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~GPprcpt

48 FIGURE IV: PERCENTAGE OF GROSS STATE DOMESTIC PRODUCT SPENT ON ELEMENTARY EDUCATION (ALL STATES) Em.mE X al LL a! ILl IL YEAR

49 FIGURE V: REAL SPENDING PER STUDENT BY STATES ON ELEMENTARY EDUCATION AP A B G H Hp JK K K MP M 0 P R T p B NR S I U A ir AA A E AR A R U A A UR W E NA S H J R M MS R R A H I N J M TA E N HD D A A A Y AD MH N A HD A S J A I TD S G HE M R R A CE UM A L ye R A S A S L AE T A AS A N H I T A AS A A B T RS L AH T A A &R A H S H N H LH K H A A A T N D R U STATE J ~ ~~

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