RURAL DEVELOPMENT PLANNING STRATEGIES FOR THE PROVINCE OF WEST SUMATRA OF INDONESIA

Transcription

1 RURAL DEVELOPMENT PLANNING STRATEGIES FOR THE PROVINCE OF WEST SUMATRA OF INDONESIA by Sjofjan Asnawi A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Agricultural Development Economics in the Australian National University August 1976

2 Except where otherwise indicated, this sub-thesis is my own work. August, 1976 Sjofjan Asnawi

3 (iü) A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S The author is much indebted to many teachers in the Development Studies Centre in the Research School of Pacific Studies at the Australian National University, from whom he received considerable extra knowledge in the field of agricultural development economics. Special credit is due to Dr Dan M. Etherington, his supervisor, who has always been most generous without limit in giving his time and assistance. His excellent guidance and supervision enabled the author to carry out this study. However, the author alone is responsible for any shortcoming the study may have. Thanks are also due to Mr E. K. Fisk, the Executive Director of the Development Studies Centre, and Dr C. Barlow, the Convenor of the Master's r ~N? program, who encouraged and guided him during the study period and read the final draft and offered valuable criticisms and comments. The author wishes to thank the Government of Australia and the Agricultural Development Council Inc., for their financial support which enabled him and his wife to live in Canberra during the study period in the years 1974 to And last, but not least, his thanks go to Mrs Pauline Lyall for typing the manuscript.

4 (iv) A B S T R A C T This study attempts to find relevant strategies of rural development planning for the province of West Sumatra, Indonesia, by using the theory, international experience, and present conditions of the province as tools of analysis. The background and reasons for the study are set out in Chapter One. The basic concept of rural development is discussed briefly in Chapter Two. It includes the definition of the rural development planning strategy; the distinctions between agricultural and rural development; and goals, elements, stages and phases of rural development. It shows clearly that the process of rural development is an extremely complex and complicated matter. The main function of planning is to help rather than to hinder the development process. Without planning, the process might be slow or misdirected. Some types of rural development strategies include: the Minimum Package Strategy, Comprehensive Approaches, and the Sector and Special Schemes. These are distinguished in Chapter Three. The experience of many developing countries in using these strategies is discussed. It includes the experiences of China and Taiwan and the comprehensive approaches, Malaysia with the "Redbook" planning procedure, Ethiopia with the Minimum Package Program and the Chilalo Agricultural Development Unit project, Kenya with the Kenya Tea Development Authority program, Bangladesh with the Comilla Projects, and Indonesia with the programs of Rice Intensification, Project Management Unit, of rubber, Village and District Subsidy, and a number of Special and Sectoral programs. To complete the rods of analysis the conditions and potential of the province are outlined in Chapter Four. Major attention is given to the

5 (v) economic and social problems with respect to rural development. The analysis of what was discussed in the four chapters is made in Chapter Five. I t includes: analysis of a general model for achieving rural development goals; planning approaches; planning systems; and re la tiv e p rio ritie s in planning. The resu lts of the analyses are concluded in Chapter Six. A number of recommendations is also made. The general model for achieving a self-su stain in g rural development, as described by Waterson (1975), is likely to be relevant to the province. Although the comprehensive strategy is very important and quite reasonable for success, for the present conditions of the province i t can only be seen as a long term planning objective. Various preparations are suggested for using the strategy. Suggestions are made to improve the present stra te g ies to make them more effective and to increase the p articip atio n of the local community. I t is recommended to launch a two-way tra f fic planning procedure, in which proposals come from rural people, while guidance, consideration and decisions are made at the top by the government. The establishment of a ru ral development training in s titu tio n to provide various aspects of ru ral development training for public servants and ru ral people should be considered by the Government. Upgrading courses for village heads and informal leaders should be continued in a regular manner to speed up the social process in the province.

6 (Vi) C O N T E N T S ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS... ( i i i ) Page ABSTRACT... LIST OF TABLES (x) (iv) LIST OF FIGURES... (xi) k -k k k k CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION Background and Im portance of the Study Why the Province of West Sumatra? The O bjective and S tru c tu re of the Study 6 CHAPTER TWO: THE BASIC CONCEPT OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT D e fin itio n of R ural Development Planning S tra te g y R ural Development and A g ric u ltu ra l Development R ural Development Goals Common G o a l s S p e c ific Goals Elements of R ural Development Elements of A g ric u ltu ra l Development R ural I n s t i tu t io n s I n f r a s tr u c tu r e Stages and Phases of R ural Development K ulp's Stage of R ural Development F is k 's Stage of A g ric u ltu ra l Development M e llo r's Stage of A g ric u ltu ra l D e v e lo p m e n t

7 (vii) Contents (Cont'd) - Page Major Characterization of Agricultural Development Stages Conclusions CHAPTER THREE: RURAL DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES The Minimum Package S t r a t e g y Bimas Program in Indonesia Village Unit Co-operatives (BUUD/KUD) The Minimum Package Program in Ethiopia The Comprehensive Strategy Nationally Integrated Programs China's Rural Development Taiwan's Rural Development Malaysia's Rural Development Indonesia's Rural Development Area Development Schemes Comilla Projects in Bangladesh The Chilalo Agricultural Development Unit Sector and Special Programs Sectoral Programs Illustrations Special Programs Illustrations The KTDA Program The Project Management Unit Program Village and Kabupaten Subsidy Programs in Indonesia Other Types of Special Programs

8 (viii) Contents (Cont'd) - Page CHAPTER FOUR: THE PROVINCE OF WEST SUMATRA General Description Human and Natural Resources Population Agricultural L a n d F o r e s t Mineral Resources Water Resources for Electricity The Pattern of Social Organization Economic Structure Agricultural Structure Industrial Production Market Structure The Infrastructure Transport Systems Irrigation Communication Education Public Health Services Institutions and Organizations Village Government Organizations Credit Institutions CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS Model for Achieving Goals Labour Intensive Agriculture Minor Development Works Light Industries Self-help as Foundation Organization for Rural Development Development Centres

9 (ix) Contents (C ont'd) - Page 5.2 P lanning Approaches P lanning System The Im portance of Feed-back P lanning Procedure T argets in the P lanning System R e la tiv e P r i o r i t i e s in P lanning CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS C onclusions Recommendations P lanning System P re p a ra tio n fo r an In te g ra te d Development S tra te g y BIBLIOGRAPHY APPENDIX A: PLANNING SYSTEMS APPENDIX B: Table B.l P roduction of West Sum atra s Food Crops, Table B.2 Table B.3 Table B.4 P roduction of West Sum atra's Sm allholder Cash Crops, Areas of West Sum atra's Sm allholder Cash Crops, E s ta te A g ric u ltu re in West Sumatra, 1971/ & & * * *

10 (x) L I S T O F T A B L E S T a b le T i t l e Page 2.1 Summary o f Ten M a jo r C h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f A g r i c u l t u r a l D e ve lo p m e n t fro m S tage I th ro u g h S ta g e I I and i n t o S ta g e I I I N e t B e n e f it p e r H e c ta re o f Bimas and N on-bim as P rogram s and th e B/C R a tio s i n Two K abupatens o f W est S um atra f o r T h re e G ro w in g Seasons Repaym ent R a te s u n d e r Bim as P ro g ra m i n In d o n e s ia C r e d it o f Bimas and I t s Repaym ent i n W est S um atra P ro v in c e / / The A c t i v i t i e s o f th e BUUD/KUD i n W est S um atra P r o v in c e, Number o f V illa g e s i n Terms o f B a s ic R u r a l Types Number o f V illa g e s in Terms o f 36 B a s ic R u r a l Types Number o f V illa g e s i n Terms o f E conom ic and S o c ia l- C u lt u r a l C o n d i t i o n s A re a and P r o d u c tio n o f R ubber on E s ta te s and S m a llh o ld in g s i n In d o n e s ia A re a and P ro d u c tio n o f R ubber i n In d o n e s ia b y P r o v in c e, S m a llh o ld e r R ubber P r o d u c tio n E s tim a te s w it h and w it h o u t R e p la n tin g P ro g ra m i n In d o n e s ia, S m a llh o ld e r R ubber A re a s and th e PMU P ro g ra m i n In d o n e s ia P r o je c ts u n d e r th e In p re s P ro g ra m i n W est S u m a tra : / / W est S u m a tra P o p u la tio n a t th e 1971 Census W est S u m a tra P o p u la tio n D i s t r i b u t i o n i n th e 1961 and 1971 Census o f P o p u la tio n Land:M an R a tio i n W est S u m a tra i n G ro ss R e g io n a l D o m e s tic P ro d u c t (GRDP) a t C o n s ta n t 1969 P r ic e s, W est S u m a tra, k k k k k

11 (xi) L I S T OF F I G U R E S Figure T itle Page 2.1 The Planning System The Structure of the Planning System The Elements of Rural Development A Farming System A Regional Farming System The Effect of Five Essentials on a Farming System The Effect of Five Accelerators on a Farm System Production and Yield of Rice and Cassave in Indonesia, The Strategy of Rural Development in Comilla Projects in Bangladesh S tructural and Functional Dimensions of the Comilla Co-operative System Basic Economic Development Strategy in the CADU Project, Ethiopia Organization Chart of the Chilalo A gricultural Development Unit, Organization Structure for Project Management Units Map of West S u m atra Map of the Population Density of the Province of West Sumatra The Marketing Channels of A gricultural Products of West Sumatra Information Flows in a Planning System Rural Development Planning Procedure in West Sumatra Province at the Moment Rural Development Planning Procedure for the Province of West S u m atra P a rtia l Organizational Structure of the Ministry of A griculture in Indonesia k k k k -k

12 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION The topic of this study is "Rural Development Planning Strategies for the Province of West Sumatra of Indonesia". This chapter introduces the background, importance, objectives and structure of the study. 1.1 Background and Importance of the Study In developing countries, "rural development is the key to the whole process of development, and the key to rural development lies in the hands of millions of peasants" (Weitz, 1971, pp.21-22). This view is quite reasonable when we pay attention to the general characteristics of developing countries. First, the majority of the people live and find their livelihoods in rural areas. For example, in Indonesia, about 82 per cent of the people live in rural areas and about 70 per cent of the manpower work in agriculture (Birowo, 1972). In this study, "agriculture" is defined as "man's treatment of suitable plants and animals for the production of food and certain organic raw materials" (Wittfegel, 1971, p.3). Therefore, agriculture covers crop production, animal husbandry, forestry, and fishery. Second, "of the population in developing countries considered to be in either absolute or relative poverty, more than 80 per cent are estimated to live in rural areas" (World Bank, 1975, p.4). Approximately 85 per cent of the 750 million poor in developing countries are considered to be in absolute poverty and the remaining 15 per cent are judged to be in relative poverty. In this study, absolute poverty is defined as those with per capita income of $US50 or less. If the annual per capita income

13 2 is above the equivalent of $US50, but below one-third of the national average per capita income, the situation is called "relative poverty". Based on the result of a survey conducted by the Directorate General of PMD (Rural Community Development) of the Ministry of Interior of Indonesia, in , the average per capita income of rural areas of Indonesia was only Rp. 12,000, approximately equivalent to $US29.^ The average national per capita income in the year of the survey was Rp.29,000, or about $US70. The per capita income of the nearest village was only a quarter of the national average per capita income (PMD, 1973, p.7). Third, the majority of the households in rural areas of developing countries are agricultural households. For example, about 93 per cent of the people in rural areas of West Sumatra find their livelihood from agriculture. Fourth, the rural areas are much more backward than the urban areas. Poor infrastructure, inadequate health facilities, few water and electricity systems, few of the inhabitants able to send their children to school, subsistence and traditional production systems, and other aspects of underdevelopment are common characteristics of developing countries rural life. In this case, Indonesia is no exception. While many governments talk a great deal about the importance of rural v development, few translate the speeches by giving high priority to rural development activities in their development plans. In many countries, commitment to rural development at the national policy level is lacking (World Bank, 1975, p.6). According to Kulp (1970, p.4), although almost every developing country has had its rural development projects, most of them have generally failed to reach most of the rural population. 1. The exchange rate used is $US1.00 = Rp

14 3 Various reasons have been advanced as to why ru ral development projec ts have failed to reach most of the ru ra l population: there has been a lack of working method or planning techniques (Kulp, 1970, p.4); unsuitable strateg ies have been used (Kotter, 1974); planning has been based on (i) inadequate knowledge of local conditions and constraints, (ii) d ifferen t programs being the resp o n sib ility of different agencies, and ( iii) the specific means for achieving goals being often nearly articu lated (Lele, 1974, pp ); often goals of ru ra l development and specific policy instruments are not linked together with ru ral development implementation (Yotopoulos and Nugent, 1976, p.422); the pattern and direction of rural development policies have not been clearly formulated eith e r for the short term or the long term (PERHEPI, 1973, p.3). The pathology of rural development planning is discussed in Appendix A, and the extent of its failu re in West Sumatra is discussed in Chapters Four and Five. Meanwhile, a number of countries such as China, Taiwan, Malaysia, Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Kenya, and Indonesia have been rela tiv e ly successful in some aspects of th eir rural development. The stra te g ies that have been used by these countries are not a ll the same, as w ill be seen la te r in Chapter Three. Further, selected success sto ries are not meant to deny that these countries continue to face substantial problems in ru ral development aims. China, through multi-purpose communes, has attained increases in production and yields of ag ricu ltu ral products. Expansion of educational and medical f a c ilitie s in ru ral areas has been achieved (Wheelwright and McFarlane, 1971, Ch.10). Taiwan demonstrates that with a comprehensive rural development strategy the farmers of a developing country can achieve a high degree of prosperity on one hectare farms. Malaysia has done an

15 4 exceptional job of laying foundations for comprehensive rural development with its dramatically efficient physical infrastructure program (Kulp, 1970, p.188). Bangladesh illustrates through its Comilla projects that progress in rural organization would depend initially on the willingness of villagers to try something new, and this will require faith and trust in their own local leaders and in the academy staff. Thus, the attitudes and priority of the village leaders were the first concern of the development strategists (Raper, 1970, pp.14-15). Ethiopia and Indonesia have 2 used the Minimum Package Program to increase production and yields of basic food crops. Kenya, with a special program under the direction of the Kenya Tea Development Authority, has substantially increased the pro- 3 duction and income of smallholder tea growers. The major conclusions that can be drawn from the above are that (1) Rural development is the key to the whole development process in developing countries; (2) success or failure of a development project depends upon many factors and these factors are not always the same for each country but depend upon the conditions and situation of each country as pointed out later in Chapter Three; (3) the problems of rural development are not only important, but may also be crucial. Accordingly, the study of how to solve these problems is very useful. One aspect of the problem is the relevant strategy for rural development planning. The main focus of this study is the appropriate rural development planning strategies for West Sumatra. 2. The Minimum Package Program is defined in Chapter Three (section 3.1). 3. More detailed experiences of these countries in rural developments are discussed in Chapters Three and Five.

16 5 1.2 Why the Province of West Sum atra? The s e le c tio n of the province of West Sumatra as a region for d e ta ile d study is based on the follow ing reasons. F i r s t, the au th o r i s f a m ilia r w ith the region and an overview of West Sumatra in the lig h t of in te r n a tio n a l experience is lack in g. Second, Indonesia com prises a conglom eration of sub-economies in a land of many c u ltu re s so th a t i t is im possible to apply a s in g le model fo r the whole of Indonesia. In h er review of r u r a l development in A fric a, Uma Lele noted th a t " r u r a l development s tr a te g y might be d if f e r e n t from region to region due to the fa c t th a t the in te r a c tio n s between p o lic ie s, i n s t i t u t i o n s, tra in e d manpower, p h y sic a l resources and technology are complex and immensely d iv erse " (L ele, 1974, p ). For s im ila r reaso n s, i t is h ig h ly u n lik e ly th a t th ere is a sin g le package th a t is u n iv e rs a lly a p p lic a b le fo r a l l regions of Indonesia. T hird, about 86 per cent of West Sum atra's p o p u latio n liv e in r u r a l a re a s, and about 72 per cent of i t s households are a g r ic u ltu r a l households. Moreover, about 60 per cent of i t s re g io n a l gross product comes from a g r ic u ltu r e, and n e a rly 100 p er cent of i t s ex p o rts c o n s is ts of a g r ic u ltu r a l commodities which are m ostly produced by sm allholders BAPPEMDA, 1973, p.4 3 ). F ourth, the m a tr ilin e a l s o c ia l system of the region is unique w ith in Indonesia. According to E pstein and Penny (1972, p ), reg io n s w ith m a tr ilin e a l s o c ia l system s have low development p o te n tia l. I f th is is tru e, i t makes the task of r u r a l development th a t much more d i f f i c u l t and em phasises the need fo r a c a re fu l and sy ste m atic study of a lte r n a tiv e s tr a te g i e s.

17 6 1.3 The O bjective and S tru c tu re of the Study The main o b je c tiv e of th is study is to fin d the re le v a n t s tr a te g ie s of r u r a l development planning fo r the province of West Sumatra, given the s o c ia l, economic, and p h y sic a l c o n s tra in ts d iscu ssed in Chapter Four, and the goals of r u r a l development in the reg io n. The goals of r u r a l development of the region must be in lin e w ith the n a tio n a l and re g io n a l development go als. The u ltim a te goal of the development of Indonesia is "to c re a te a j u s t and prosperous s o c ie ty fo r a l l people m a te ria lly and s p i r i t u a l l y based on V ancasila (th e fiv e p r in c ip le s of the Indonesian way of l i f e ).... " The u ltim a te goal cannot be reached in a s h o rt time p e rio d, so i t w i l l have to be achieved in s ta g e s. The goals of each sta g e should be form ulated according to the re s p e c tiv e sta g e of developm ent. At the p re se n t s ta g e, the general goals of n a tio n a l development have been s ta te d in the Second Five Year Development Plan (R e p e lita I I ), namely: (1) to in c re a se the le v e l of liv in g and w elfare of a l l people; (2) to lay a s o lid foundation fo r n a tio n a l development in the subsequent p e rio d s; (3) to in c re a se production and income, to d is tr ib u te the development gains in an equal manner, and to expand employment o p p o r tu n itie s, and th ese th re e aims should be c a rrie d out in an i n te g rate d and balanced manner; (4) to ta c k le more in te n s iv e ly the problems th a t have not been solved during P e l it a I (the r e a liz a tio n of R e p e lita I ). The above broad aims are a lso the goals of the r u r a l development of the n a tio n. A s p e c if ic goal fo r r u r a l development is "th e achievement of a stro n g b a s is fo r s e lf - s u s ta in in g growth and development of the r u r a l community".

18 7 This goal w ill be achieved through the follow ing programs: (1) p ro v id in g and expanding employment o p p o rtu n itie s in the a g r ic u ltu r a l s e c to r, sm all in d u s tr ie s and h om ecrafts; (2) e ff e c tin g re s e ttle m e n t/ lo c a l tra n sm ig ra tio n ; (3) designing and in tro d u c in g s p e c ia l development programs fo r backward r u r a l a re a s; (4) improving and expanding r u r a l in f r a s t r u c t u r e ; r u r a l community; (5) d issem in atin g more knowledge and s k i l l s w ith in the (6) im proving r u r a l community h e a lth by e s ta b lis h in g more h e a lth c e n tres and o th er s a n ita tio n f a c i l i t i e s ; (7) making plans to improve the land tenure system ; (8) in c re a sin g the e ffe c tiv e n e s s of the "BUUD/KUD" (V illag e Unit C o -o p e ra tiv e s); (9) r a is in g r u ra l community p a r tic ip a tio n fo r development a c t i v i t i e s through "Lambaga S o sia l Desa", or "V illag e Community C ouncil"; (10) in c re a s in g the a b il it y and c a p a b ili ty of v illa g e government ap p aratu s. The goals of development of the p ro v in ce, in c lu d in g i t s r u ra l development goals are expressed in very g en eral term s: "To in c re a se the c o n trib u tio n of the province towards achieving the n a tio n a l goals according to the c o n d itio n s, s it u a ti o n, and p o te n tia l of the region" (BAPPEMDA, 1973, p.2 2 ). The c o n d itio n s and p o te n tia l of the province are d iscu ssed in Chapter Four. Thus, th is study is concerned w ith a lte r n a tiv e p o lic ie s and s tr a te g ie s of r u r a l development to achieve the re le v a n t goals. The s tr u c tu r e of the study is based on a sy ste m atic study of the experience of Indonesia and o th e r c o u n trie s in r u r a l development planning. Chapter Two o u tlin e s the b a s ic concept of r u r a l development planning. The main aim of the ch ap ter is to summarise the "theory" of r u r a l development. The th ir d chapter examines s tr a te g ie s and approaches th a t have been a p p lied in some developing c o u n trie s in c a rry in g out t h e i r r u r a l development planning. I t t r i e s to fin d the re la tio n s h ip between the s tr a te g ie s

19 8 th a t have been ap p lied and the r e s u lts of the r u r a l development p r o je c ts. C la r if ic a tio n of the d iffe re n c e s between each s tra te g y w ill be attem pted. The ch ap ter also aims to summarise the keys to success and the causes of the f a ilu r e of the d if f e r e n t r u r a l development s tr a te g ie s fo r the l a t e r purpose of comparison w ith West Sumatra. C hapter Four summarises the c o n d itio n s, s it u a ti o n, and p o te n tia l of the province of West Sumatra w ith regard to the process of r u r a l development in the province. I t a lso aims to fin d the s o c ia l, economic, the p h y s ic a l c o n s tra in ts of the region in o rder to form ulate re le v a n t s tr a te g i e s of r u r a l development planning fo r the province. Chapter Five d isc u sse s and analyses the proper r u r a l development plan n in g s tr a te g ie s fo r West Sumatra. D iscussions and analyses are based on g o a ls, c o n s tra in ts and theory of r u r a l development planning in the previous c h a p te rs, and the experiences of some developing c o u n trie s as discu ssed in Chapter Three. F in a lly, Chapter Six gives the conclusions of the study and recomm endations.

20 9 CHAPTER TWO THE BASIC CONCEPT OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT This chapter is concerned w ith the b a sic concept of r u r a l development and the c o n tra s t between r u r a l development and a g r ic u ltu r a l developm ent. I t a ls o in clu d e s q u estio n s rev o lv in g around the d e f in itio n, goals, elem ents, stag es and phases of r u r a l developm ent. An im portant and re c u rrin g phrase in th is study is " r u r a l development planning s tra te g y ". This needs to be c le a rly defin ed. 2.1 D e fin itio n of R ural Development Planning S trateg y The "R ural Development Panel Seminar" th a t was held in New York in July 1973 summed up the m eetin g s d isc u ssio n s by em phasising the need for a s u ita b le d e f in itio n of r u r a l development (USA, 1975). There are a number of p o ssib le d e f in itio n s. H irsch (1963, p.49) d e fin e s r u r a l development as a pro cess of change: change in the p h y sic a l, in the economic and in the s o c ia l environm ent of r u r a l a re a s. An example of the p h y sic a l change is where the land has been d iv id ed by a man in to f ie l d s, c u ltiv a tin g crops and p la n tin g tre e s in an o rd erly fash io n. The economic environm ent changes from su b siste n c e a g r ic u ltu r e w ith a b a r te r economy to pro d u ctio n for p r o f i t w ith a monetary b a s is. The s o c ia l environm ent changes from being closed and is o la te d to being a more open s o c ie ty. Kulp (1970, p.14) d e fin e s r u r a l development as a system. He says: R ural development as a system may be d efined as th a t s e t of economic and s o c ia l development a c t i v i t i e s p e c u lia r to the process of transform ing the t r a d i ti o n a l se c to r as a whole.

21 10 These activities require a set of planning techniques different from those used for the modern sector. Fish (1972) defines rural development as -... a set of policies or goals with the two main ends. First must be the promotion of the well-being of the rural majority. Second is the production of a surplus of a size and nature that will enable the fulfilment of a reasonable part of those national development requirements that are not exclusively rural. Rural development is defined by Lele (1974, p.17) as "improving living standards of the mass of the low income population residing in rural areas and making the process of their development self-sustaining". She added that there are three important features in the definition. First, improving living standards of the low income population involves mobilisation and allocation of resources in order to reach a desirable balance over time between the welfare and productive services available to the subsistence rural sector. Second, mass participation requires ensuring that resources are allocated to low income regions and classes, and that the productive and social services actually reach the mass of the subsistence population. Third, making the process self-sustaining requires development of the appropriate skills and implementing capacity and the presence of institutions at the local, regional and national levels to ensure the effective use of existing resources and to foster the mobilisation of additional financial and human resources for continued development of the subsistence sector. Rural development is defined elsewhere by the World Bank (1975, p.3):... as a strategy designed to improve the economic and social life of a specific group of people, the rural poor. It involves extending the benefits of development to the poorest among those who seek a livelihood in the rural areas. The group includes small scale farmers, tenants and the landless.

22 11 From the above five definitions, we can draw the following conclusions: 1. The definitions of rural development of Hirsch and Kulp may be seen as objective definitions. For them development is a process, a process of change or a process of transforming the traditional sector. They define rural development without stressing a special group of people such as the poorest or the low income population in rural areas. 2. Fisk s definition may be called a democratic definition. For him, rural development is a set of policies that must promote the well-being of the rural majority, but is, necessarily, a part of national development. 3. Rural development as defined by Lele and the World Bank is much influenced by the meaning of development in Seers (1970) where he stresses that a period should be called a period of development if and only if poverty, unemployment and inequality decrease from high levels. But if one or two or them are growing worse even if income per capita doubles, it is difficult to say that development is occurring. For Lele and the World Bank the definition of rural development is identical with the policy or strategy objectives of rural development. We do not know whether these five definitions fit the requirements of the New York seminar since the participants gave no criteria for what they considered a suitable definition.

23 12 This study, however, will propose a definition of rural development in order to add to or to combine them. In the point of view of this study, rural development is a continuing process of change in the physical, economic and social environment that is carried out by human beings to increase the level of living of all members of the rural community, both materially and spiritually. The pattern, direction, degree and speed of the process depend upon strategies, policies, and approaches in managing rural development. This definition shows that: First, rural development is a continuing process of change. This means that with or without planning, policies, strategies and approaches, the rural development process will still exist. Without them the process may be slow or misdirected. Second, the process of change concerns the physical, economic and social environment. The relationships between physical, economic and social changes are interdependent. vice versa. It means if the one changes the other might change, too, and For example, if the social environment changes from a closed to an open society, the economic and physical cond i tion will change too. The economic system might change from barter to monetary transaction, and physical condition might change from shifting cultivation to sedentary cultivation. On the other hand, if the physical condition changes by establishing sufficient roads to a certain rural area which formerly had no road at all, the economic system might in time change from a subsistence economy to a profit-motive economy, and the social condition might be changed from a primitive society to a modern community. Third, the process of change is carried out by human beings so that the quality, ability and capability of the human beings determine the quantity and quality of the process. Fourth, the roles of strategy, policy and approach usually formulated in planning, are very important for managing rural development.

24 13 Their fu n ctio n is to d ir e c t or to speed up the process of change to reach r u r a l development g o als. F if th, r u r a l development goals are n ot only concerned w ith m a te ria l needs, but a lso w ith n o n -m a te ria l needs such as the needs for m ental and s p i r i t u a l w e ll-b e in g. We come now to the q u estio n of: What is Planning? The answer to th is q u estio n can be found, among o th e rs, in Clawson (1966), S chickele (1969, p.2 7 ), Kulp (1970, p p ), Sundrum (1972), and Caiden and Wildavsky (1974, p.2 5 ). Clawson emphasised th a t "wise p lan n in g, which can r e a lly serve as the b a sis fo r a c tio n, must seek to fo re se e in advance as a c c u ra te ly as p o s s ib le every re le v a n t f a c to r". S chickele viewed planning as an a r t as w e ll as a science where the a r t means doing and scien ce stands fo r knowing. Or in o th er words, p lan n ers must not only know what should be done, b u t must a ls o have a r e a l i s t i c sense of what and how i t can be done. Dror (in Sundrum, 1972) d efin ed p lanning as "th e process of p re p a rin g a s e t of d e c isio n s for a c tio n s in the fu tu re d ire c te d a t achieving goals by optim al means". Caiden and Wildavsky s tr e s s e d th a t planning is not w ritin g p lans b u t providing s tr a te g ie s and p r i o r i t i e s, and en su rin g th a t planning is taken to implement p o lic ie s. Or in o th er words, planning does n o t stan d fo r w ritin g p lan s b ut to provide the imp lernenta tio n of p o lic ie s w ith re le v a n t s tr a te g ie s and to determ ine r e l a t i v e p r i o r i t i e s. Kulp p re fe rs to use schem atic fig u re s ra th e r than a w ritte n d e fin i t i o n. For him, planning is a system. I t means th a t any r e a l a c t i v i t y has a c o n tro l system and a p ro cessin g system. The planning system takes p lace in between these two system s, as can be seen in F igure 2.1.

25 14 FIGURE 2.1 THE PLANNING SYSTEM Real outputs Real r^" inputs REAL PROCESS SYSTEM Data input Allocations PLANNING SYSTEM POLICY SYSTEM nges FERD- Parameter Feedback on 'formance OVERALL Planning personnel input GOVERNMENT CONTROL SYSTEM Flow control A Data monitor 0 Decisionmaking operation

26 15 Figure 2.1 (from Kulp, 1970, Figure 1.3, p.ll) shows the decision making operation in planning systems is based on: (i) policy system; (ii) overall government control system which consists of parameter changes and planning personnel input where both of them are as the result of feed-back on performance of real process system; and (iii) data input and feed-back of real output from real process system. The result of the decision-making operation in the planning system is the allocation of real inputs to the real process system. If there is any change in parameter before entering the real process system, it will go back to overall government control system through feed-back on performance line. The output of the real process system which is also the goal of the planning system is shown by real outputs. These real outputs will be the information that flows back to the planning system through feed-back lines, as data input for the next process in the planning system. Figure 2.1 also gives evidence of the interrelationship between the systems where they are interdisciplinary. It shows too that the planning system is a process of preparing a set of decisions for actions as stressed by Clawson (1966) or as emphasised by Dror (in Sundrum, 1972), to provide every relevant factor. It also shows that the planning system takes place as the implementation of policy as concluded by Caiden and Wildavsky (1974, p.25) which features as an arrow line from policy system to the planning system. The planning system is a complex activity. It can be imagined as a network of decision-making operations, as also shown by Figure 2.1. The structure of the planning system can be simplified as shown by Figure 2.2.

27 16 FIGURE 2.2 THE STRUCTURE OF THE PLANNING SYSTEM PLANNING SYSTEM Types of Planning Allocative planning Institutional framework planning Planning Dimensions Organizational Dimension Time Dimension Macro planning Intermediate planning Micro Planning Data Processing Structuring Programming Sub-systems of Planning Logical system Adminis trative system Documentation system

28 17 Figure 2.2 shows that there are two types of planning in such a planning system, namely, allocative planning and institutional planning. Both types have two planning dimensions, namely, the organizational dimension and the time dimension. The organizational dimension consists of: Macro planning; Intermediate planning; and Micro planning. The time dimension comprises data processing, structuring, and programming. Each element of the planning dimensions has sub-systems of planning, namely, logical system, administrative system, and documentation system. The detail of the planning system structure, including planning pathology and criteria of a good planning system can be seen in Appendix A. In conclusion, the meaning of planning is a process of preparing a set of decisions for action in the future. Decisions are based on policy, data input and feed-back on performance to meet goals by optimal means. In undertaking its roles, planning is a system which takes place in between the real process system and the overall government control system. The interrelationships among the systems are interdisciplinary. Finally, the question of what is meant by a "strategy" in the context of rural development needs to be answered. Kulp (1970, pp ) explains the meaning of the strategy as follows: The term strategy is used in operations research to describe the establishment of decision rules applicable to problems under the following conditions, where (1) decisions must be made at successive moments in time; (2) future circumstances are undertain; and (3) the uncertainty diminishes with time. From this explanation we can see that a strategy is a set of decision rules and as such is the method (or system) by which a stated objective is to be achieved. Or, in other words, a strategy may be seen as a mixture of programs and policies that are intended to alter the directions as well as the rate of change.

29 18 Thus, rural development planning strategy can be defined as a problem of which systems should be used in preparing a set of decisions for action in the future of the rural development process. 2.2 Rural Development and Agricultural Development The importance of the distinction between rural development and agricultural development was stressed by Anker (1973) and King (1975). According to them, rural development must be distinguished from agricultural development because policies which are appropriate to achieve the one are not necessarily suitable for the other. Rural development is not the same as agricultural development, although the latter is obviously an essential part of it. Many activities of the agricultural sector are not included in rural development. Only a set of project activities including extension, credit, supply, marketing, land titling, engineering services, and promotion of a particular farm product is included. On the other hand, rural development also includes activities outside the agricultural sector which require rural community activities. The activities include building and maintenance of small feeder roads, village schools and clinics, and other facilities for rural community like family planning programs, and paramilitary and civil aspects (Kulp, 1970, pp.14-15). According to the "Symposium of Indonesia's Rural and Agricultural Pattern" that was held in Jakarta in November 1972, the distinctions between rural development and agricultural development are as follows. Agricultural development emphasises the problems of the introduction and selection of technology, the selection and diversification of crops appropriate to natural conditions, the processing and marketing of agricultural products, and the problem of how to extend employment opportunities.

30 19 On the other hand, rural development concentrates on the questions of human potential, social institutions, culture, village administration, the improvement and establishment of rural production including nonagricultural products such as small scale industry, home crafts, marketing and processing units (PERHEPI, 1973, pp.2-3). If we look into elements of agricultural development discussed by Mosher (1966) and the functional components of a modern agriculture which are also analysed by Mosher (1971) in a subsequent work, it is evident that the scope and elements of agricultural development are wide enough. But according to Fisk (1972) the ambit of rural development is much wider. The elements of agricultural development discussed by Mosher consist of essentials and accelerators. These elements will be discussed later in detail (see Section 2.4). The functional components of a modern agriculture consist of farming, agri-support, and the agri-milieu. Agri-support consists of commercial and non-commercial elements. Commercial elements include production and distribution of farm inputs, marketing, processing, and distribution of farm products, and production credit for farmers. Non-commercial elements consist of research, extension, training of agricultural technicians. The agricultural milieu includes farmers participation in political processes, government policies on land tenure, prices, taxes and agricultural development. Economic agri-milieu includes transportation, foreign trade, domestic industries and services. Cultural milieu consists of traditions, social structure, and general education (Mesher, 1971, pp.5-11). The ambit of rural development policies that are discussed by Fisk (ibid.) includes:

31 20... economic problems such as what to produce, and how much, and how to produce it, questions of taxation policy and incentives, or savings, credit, and investment, of specialization versus diversity of production, of world markets and terms of trade, and many other financial and economic matters. It also includes questions of population, employment, wage policy, land tenure, education policy, local government, preservation of law and order, administration of justice, provision of roads and communications, health and medical facilities, and many others. FIGURE 2.3 THE ELEMENTS OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT Elements of Agricultural Development Essential elements Accelerating elements Non-agricultural Rural infrastructure Rural institutions The conclusions that can be drawn are that the difference between rural development and agricultural development are as follows (see Figure 2.3): (1) agricultural development elements are the major part of rural development elements; (2) agricultural development activities are wide enough but the ambit of rural development activities are much wider than the agricultural activities; and C3) the relationships between rural

32 21 development and agricultural development are very close indeed simultaneous consideration of the activities of the former and so that a the latter benefits both. 2.3 Rural Development Goals The goals of rural development can be grouped into two kinds, namely, "common goals" and "specific goals". that are valid for all rural areas. Common goals are the real goals Specific goals are the goals that may only be achieved in certain rural areas or for a specific rural development project. Specific goals much depend upon the environmental or rural areas Common goals The discussion of common goals of rural development can be found, among others, in Hirsch (1963), Seers (1970), Mosher (1971), Biggs (1974), Lele (1974), Kotter (1974), Schickele (1969; 1971), and World Bank (1975): The objective of rural development programs, however, may not only be increased overall productivity in a region but also increased participation in agricultural production and incomes, and reduced income disparities between classes of farmers (Lele, 1974, p.34). The objectives of rural development, therefore, extend beyond any particular sector. They encompass improved productivity, increased employment and thus higher income for target groups, as well as minimum acceptable levels of food, shelter, education and health (World Bank, 1975, p.3). For Seers, the objectives of rural development are at least to reduce poverty, to decrease unemployment levels, and to lessen inequality. Kotter {ibid.) stresses that:... the logical conclusion to be drawn is that a direct attack on rural poverty cannot mean palliative approaches of an isolated nature. It does not mean a rural transformation alone. In fact, it must aim at a basic revision of relationships between the backward and more developed parts of the society on all levels.

33 22 According to Schickele (1971) th ere are two fundam ental goals of developm ent, namely; the goal of e s ta b lis h in g c iv ic r ig h ts, re s p o n s i b i l i t i e s, and o p p o rtu n itie s for every one s p a r tic ip a tio n in p u b lic a f f a i r s ; and the goal of in c re a sin g pro d u ctio n fo r the main purpose of e lim in a tin g poverty. One example of a common goal of r u r a l development is the goal to make the process of r u r a l development s e lf - s u s ta in in g, as s tre s s e d by Lele (1974, p.17) and has been included in the Indonesian r u r a l development goals (see Chapter One, s e c tio n 1.3 ). From the above opinions we can see th a t the common goals of r u r a l development are to in c re a s e the le v e l of liv in g of a l l people in r u r a l a re a s and to reduce in e q u a lity both m a te ria l and n o n -m a te ria l, and to make the r u r a l development process s e lf - s u s ta in in g. These goals are lo g ic a l because, as mentioned in Chapter One, more than 80 per cent of the p o p u latio n in developing c o u n trie s liv e in r u r a l a re a s. The in e q u a lity between r u r a l and urban areas is very high so th a t to reduce the in e q u a lity is one of the im portant goals of r u r a l developm ent. The poverty and in e q u a lity th a t are faced by r u r a l peoples are not d efin ed only in terms of m a te ria l goods b u t a ls o in n o n -m a teria l m easures such as e d u catio n, s k i l l, h e a lth, r e c re a tio n f a c i l i t i e s, and so forth. I t should be ev id e n t too th a t the goals of r u r a l development of In d o n esia, as s e t out in Chapter One (se c tio n 1.3) are in lin e w ith the common goals quoted above.

34 Specific goals One of the best readings for determining the specific goals of rural development is a paper of Fisk (1972) "Development Goals in Rural Melanesia" reprinted by A/D/C, New York. The paper stresses that the aims of rural development are not solely economic but are also concerned with the type of society and environment we are trying to produce. It means specific goals of a rural development activity are much dependent upon the environment of the rural areas, namely, physical, economic, social, cultural, natural and human resources. A specific goal is important because some goals are stated very broadly, they give no indication of what lines of action are needed. For example, stating the goal of "improving the nutrition of people" gives no indication of what must be done. This broad goal must be broken down into a set of specific "program objectives" indicating lines of action such as increasing food production which are rich with animal protein, educating consumers about how to have a good diet, etc. (Schickele, 1969, p.28). 2.4 Elements of Rural Development Elements of rural development are not only great in number but also complicated. For simplicity, they can be classified into three major categories, namely: Agricultural development elements; rural institutions and infrastructure. These three major elements, as set out in Figure 2.2, especially refer to non-communist societies with which this is concerned. The elements of agricultural development are borrowed liberally from Mosher (1966). They consist of essentials and accelerators. The detailed elements of agricultural development are discussed in sub-section of this chapter.

35 24 R ural i n s t i tu t io n s are a l l i n s t i tu t io n s or o rg an iz atio n s which are needed fo r the r u r a l development p ro ce ss. They include both p u b lic and p riv a te i n s t i t u t i o n s or o rg an iz atio n s which w ill be discu ssed in d e t a i l in su b -se c tio n of th is c h a p te r. Some of th ese i n s t i t u t i o n s provide each e s s e n t ia l or a c c e le ra to r w ith i t s d riv in g fo rc e. T herefo re, the r e la tio n s h ip between r u r a l i n s t i tu t io n s and the elem ents of a g r ic u ltu r a l development is very clo se indeed. The term " in f r a s t r u c t u r e is meant here as p h y s ic a l, economic and s o c ia l i n f r a s tr u c tu r e. T herefore, i t does not only in clu d e s o c ia l overhead c a p ita l such as roads and o th er tra n s p o rta tio n and communication system s, as w e ll as w ater s u p p lie s, e l e c t r i c power and o th er p u b lic s e rv ic e s, but a ls o in clu d es the h e a lth, s k i l l s, education and o th er q u a li ti e s of the p o p u latio n. D eta iled d isc u ssio n of the in f r a s tr u c tu r e is given in su b -se c tio n of th is ch a p te r Elements of a g r ic u ltu r a l development As we have m entioned, a g r ic u ltu r a l development is a m ajor p a rt of r u r a l development so th a t the elem ents of a g r ic u ltu r a l development are a ls o elem ents of r u r a l developm ent. The elem ents of a g r ic u ltu r a l development c o n s is t of e s s e n t ia l and a c c e le ra tin g elem ents. Mosher suggests fiv e e s s e n tia ls : 1. M arket for farm products - I t means th a t th ere must be a demand fo r the p ro d u cts, a m arketing system, and the confidence of farm ers in the working of the m arketing system. This is im portant because a g r i c u lt u r a l development in c re a se s the output of farm p ro d u cts. I f th e re is no demand and m arketing system fo r them, the p ric e of the products would be lower so th a t the farm ers may not repay t h e i r cash costs and they may lose f in a n c ia lly.