EXTERNAL ASSISTANCE TO AGRICULTURE ( )

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1 EXTERNAL ASSISTANCE TO AGRICULTURE ( ) FAO Statistics Division Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Rome July 2011 i

2 The FAO database on External Assistance to Agriculture (EAA) Background The resources available are essential for undertaking any developmental activity. In particular, FAO has been looking at internal and external resources used for agricultural and rural development. External resources are of specific interest as they play a catalytic role in achieving development goals. In this regard, FAO gives special emphasis to financial flows and investment in agriculture, a sector that plays a crucial role in the socio economic development of developing countries. One of FAO s primary functions is to collect, analyse and disseminate world wide information including External Assistance to Agriculture(EAA) aimed at meeting the needs of stakeholders, partners, and others for providing assistance to developing countries on matters that relate to agriculture and rural development. External Assistance to Agriculture Database The Statistics Division of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United nations regularly analyses the data on concessional(official Development Assistance ODA) and non concessional commitments made by bilateral and multilateral donors to developing countries popularly known as External Assistance to Agriculture. This database on commitments made by bilateral and multilateral donors consists of data from Development Assistance Committee, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, (DAC, OECD), Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries(OPEC bilateral and multilateral), the World Bank(IBRD: International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, IDA: International Development Association), Asian and African Regional Development Banks, United nations Development Program(UNDP), FAO, Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research(CGIAR), International Fund for Agricultural Development(IFAD). The commitments made in the form of grants, grant like and loans are only included. The data does not cover some of the donors like European Economic Community (EEC), Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) and some of the regional banks due to availability of data. The assistance also does not cover food aid and other technical cooperation provided in kind. The data on commitments is taken as a proxy for actual disbursement, on which data are not available. The term Agriculture is generally used in the broad sense to cover agriculture, forestry, fisheries, land & water, agro industries, environment, manufacturing of agricultural inputs & machinery, regional & river development and rural development. The narrow concept of agriculture has also been defined to look at the contribution made to develop agriculture in strict sense. This includes assistance provided for the development of agriculture (crop & animal husbandry), forestry, fisheries (including training, extension and research) and development of land and water resources. ii

3 Data coverage Since 1992, The FAO Statistics Division initiated the collection of data on external assistance to agriculture. The EAA statistics are from 1992 to most recent year available and offer a detailed overview of the investments made to agriculture and rural development by nearly 22 bilateral and 26 multilateral donors respectively for approximately 170 Developing Countries. The investments made by both bilateral and multilateral donors are aimed to build up a consistent worldwide effort towards the solution of agricultural related issues and development strategies for sustaining growth in agriculture and rural development. The FAO s EAA data coverage has since improved progressively, both qualitatively and quantitatively. The 2010 data collection methodology FAO s Statistics Division puts great effort to improve and enhance the database of External Assistance to Agriculture (EAA). The EAA data is obtained from the OECD (available via the OECD internet homepage), DAC Reports, Annual Reports of the World Bank and data received from other organizations on regional development. Following the data collection and compilation, the data are processed going through series of steps such as, analyses, including systematic checking and verifications at various stages for enhancing the quality of the data. Particular attributes of the FAO EAA database include the following: Uniqueness, as it captures and deals with agriculture sector only Coverage: it has relatively broader coverage of the following: a) Donors: more data/info on contributions, priorities, etc. b) Purpose codes (primary and secondary activities in agriculture) c) Definitions and concepts of narrow and broad of agriculture d) Types of aid flows (concessional and non concessional) The accessibility and retrieval of data is easy. Some of the important concepts associated with this database are given below. iii

4 Concepts and Definitions Adjustment for inflation: Estimates at constant prices are derived by deflating current price series by an index number of implicit prices (Based on DAC Deflator). DAC deflator is the relative change in domestic prices of donor countries adjusted for change in exchange rate of local currency with respect to US$. Amount: Value of the transfer. Bilateral donors: Donors which effectively control the disposal of their funds by specifying the recipient or other aspects of the disbursement, such as purpose, terms, total amount, reuse of any repayments. This group includes member of Development Assistance Committee formed by the OECD, Bilateral Arab Banks and funds like Kuwait Fund. Commitment: Is a firm written obligation by a government or official agency, backed by the appropriation or availability of the necessary funds, to provide resources of specified amount under specified financial terms, conditions and for specified purposes for the benefit of the recipient country.committiment has two components as follows:concessional and Non concessional. Concessional: If the commitment has a grant element equal to 25% or greater than 25%.. Concessional level: It is the measure of the difference between the a credit aimed to benefit the borrower compared to a loan at the given market rate. Exchange rates: DAC deflator is the relative change in domestic prices of donor countries adjusted for change in exchange rate of local currency with respect to US$. Grant: Is a transfer in cash or in kind for which the recipient incurs no legal debt. For DAC/CRS reporting purposes, it also includes debt forgiveness, which does not entail new transfers; support to non governmental organisations, and certain costs incurred in the implementation of the aid program. Grant element: Terms of the transaction such as interest rate, grace period (interval occurring to the first repayment), maturity period. It measures the dimension of the concessional level of the loan. Loan: It is a transfer for which is a repayment is required. Multilateral Donors contributions: The contributions made to a recipient institution such as: a) International agency,or an organization whose members are Governments.The agency or the organization may have the autonomous control in managing the fund; b) The fund is given for carrying out development activities either partially or fully; c) Sometimes the funds come from various governments known as Pools contributions. The Multilateral Donors include the following institutions: World Bank, Regional Development Banks (Asian Development Bank, African Development Bank/Fund, Inter American Development Bank, Caribbean Development Bank, Arab Development Funds) and International Organizations likes FAO, UNDP, CGIAR, and IFAD. Non Concessional Commitment: It is a commitment made by a bilateral or multilateral donor in which element of grant is less than 25 per cent. iv

5 Official Aid (OA): Consists of flows that meet all the tests of ODA, except that they are directed to part II countries (mostly countries in transition) on the DAC list of aid recipients and to multilateral institutions which primarily benefit part II aid recipients. Official Development Assistance (ODA): is defined as the flows to part 1 developing countries and to multilateral institutions for providing aid to official agencies, including state and local governments, or by their executive agencies. Each transaction is administered with the promotion of the economic development and welfare of developing countries as its main objective, and is concessional in nature i.e. it contains an element of grant that is at least 25 per cent (calculated as a rate of discount of 10 per cent). Official Development Finance (ODF): It is a measure of the inflow of resources to recipient countries: includes (a) bilateral ODA, (b) grants and concessional and non concessional development lending by multilateral financial institutions, and (c) Other Official Flows. Other Official Flows: Transactions by the official donors with countries on the List of Aid Recipients which do not meet the conditions for eligibility as Official Development Assistance or Official Aid, either because they are not primarily aimed at development, or because they have a Grant Element of less than 25 per cent. Partially tied grants and loans: These are grants and loans with goods and services procured in the donor Country or in recipient Countries. Purpose of project: Sector of destination of the transfer. Purpose code: Code for the filing of project purposes. Recipient: Country or area intended to be benefit by the Grant/Loan. Repayment: Interval of time in which the loan amount has to be returned together with interests. Tied grants and loans: Tied grants and loans may have goods and services related to the projects that may be found just in donors countries. Units of measurement: All figures are calculated in thousands of US dollars. Untied: Grants and loans for whose purposes goods and services related to the projects may be found just in any country. Acknowledgements: The FAO Statistics Division would like to gratefully acknowledge the assistance from bilateral and multilateral donors to agriculture and to express thank and appreciation for the information which has greatly contributed to the development of the External Assistance to Agriculture domain (EAA). v

6 Official Development Assistance The objective of ODA is to enhance development, and generate programs through projects that would halt or slow down further worsening of the well being of the developing nations. The spectrum of the ODA is wide and involves all sectors and activities of the economy. The ODA is the softest, generous, and flexible assistance in terms of value and conditionality, but there are other types of assistances donors give to recipients. Such assistances may carry strict terms with fewer grants, but for the purpose of development only. The ODA and other financial assistances that do not meet the terms and conditions of being qualified as an ODA but their main objective are for the development of the recipients are termed together as Official Development Finance (ODF). Total official flows refer to ODA assistance plus non concessional financial flows or total lending. Therefore, ODA is part of this general spectrum of assistances where the total official flows can be looked as the sum of two components: ODA part, and non ODA part. Thus, it is imperative to highlight the trends of the total official flows or total lending and compare relatively with the ODA. Table 1: Trend of total official flows and ODA for selected years Years Average Growth rates (%) Total Official Flows Average Growth rate ODA The total official finance and ODA were both increasing in real terms from early 70 s through 90 s, but the rate of total official flows was much higher than that of ODA in these times. As clearly shown on the above table, there was a deep fall of both from 1996 to 2000 where the fall of Total Official Flows was much more than that of the total ODA. From it was also observed that the growth rate of the total official finance and ODA increased 17.7 and 11.4 respectively. The chart 1 below give a general overview of the trend of the total official flows and ODA from vi

7 Chart 1: Total Official Flows & ODA in million US$ The above chart shows the trends in ODA and Total official flows. External Assistance to Agriculture The data on external assistance to agriculture contains both concessional and non concessional commitments made by bilateral and multilateral donors through projects/programmes for the development of agriculture. In this context the data is partly consistent with the ODA definition and partly fall outside the definition of Official Development Finance (ODF). This wide coverage has the advantage of capturing all assistance to agriculture. Regardless of softness, all forms of assistance contribute towards the development and betterment of the agriculture sector. Hence, if the non concessional part is excluded in the database then a commensurate amount that would otherwise help one way or the other is left out for no solid reason. Also, the comparisons between the two types within the same donor or between different donors give a meaningful interpretation and insights. In analyzing EAA, the trends, donors (bilateral and multilateral), concessionality (concessional and non concessional) of commitments, purposes, and recipients by region and by economic groups will be all examined, compared or related to each other whenever necessary, and observe pattern of changes with respect to time and then highlight pertinent remarks. The time series of external assistance to agriculture extends from 1974 to 2008, and due to this lengthy period it will not be possible to examine and analyze throughout these years. Nevertheless, selected years, and selected time frames will be focused. vii

8 Trends Table 2: External Assistance to agriculture by type of donor and concessionality Total EAA Commitments Growth Rate for selected years Total EAA Bilateral Multilateral Concessional Non Concessional EAA reveal mixed trends of growth and declines. The total external assistance to agriculture enjoyed its highest growth in seventies, but was declining since then in real terms. The most serious fall at all times was observed in between the years of and where it dropped by 5.6%. and 1.30% respectively. When the total EAA is partitioned into bilateral and multilateral parts, the period of was the time all financial flows were at minimum regardless of their source and kind of assistance whether it is from the bilateral or multilateral, and whether it is concessional or non concessional. After the World Food Summit of 1996 and the subsequent Summit of 2008 bilateral and multilateral donors increased their commitments to agriculture as shown in the table above. The bilateral share grew by 15%, and the multilateral by 3.5%. The concessional assistance and non concessional assistance share also grew 9% and 10.4% respectively following the same pattern of the bilateral and multilateral donors contributions. Donors Bilateral Bilateral donors are those effectively control the disposal of the funds by specifying the recipient or other aspects of the disbursement (e.g. purpose, terms, total amount, and reuse of any repayments). The bilateral donors include all DAC member countries, few OPEC member countries, Abu Dhabi and Kuwait funds. When analyzing the share of agriculture assistance in the total ODA of each bilateral donor country, it highlights how each donor country prioritizes and values agriculture in developing countries. Different donors have different policies and priorities for the different sectors of the economy. One donor might assist more or has a policy to support projects that involve education or population while another donor might be more generous towards agriculture. For that matter, in the year of 2008 Japan had the highest share of agriculture in total ODA for all bilateral donors which stood at 19% of its total assistance. Finland with 16.4% ranks the second and France and Spain the third by providing 11% of the total viii

9 assistance to agriculture. The rest of the bilateral donors and their share of contributions to agriculture are shown in the graph below. The table 3 below provide an overview of the share of EAA on total ODA by DAC donor countries from Table 3: Share of EAA on Total ODA An overview of the Share of EAA on Total ODA ( ) Australia Austria Belgium Canada Denmark Finland France Germany (Reunified) Greece Ireland Italy Japan Korea Luxembourg Netherlands New Zealand Norway Portugal Spain Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom United States Of America Source:DAC OECD ix

10 Chart 2: Share of agriculture in total ODA by donors 2008 External Assistance to Agriculture andn share of agriculture in total ODA by donor(2008) Australia 10 Austria Belgium Canada Denmark 11 8 Finland France Germany (Reunificated) 7 Greece 1 Ireland 8 Italy 5 Japan Korea Luxembourg Netherlands New Zealand Norway Portugal Spain Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom United States Of America Chart 3: Growth rates of Multilateral & Bilateral commitments Bilateral Multilateral x

11 Multilateral donors Multilateral donors are international agencies, institutions or organizations whose members are Governments or a fund managed autonomously by such an agency, assist recipients, conduct part or all its activities in favour of development, and pools contributions so that they lose their identity and become an integral part of its financial assets. Multilateral donors that assist Developing countries in providing External Assistance to Agriculture (EAA) are practically few in number and they include the World Bank, Regional Development Banks (Asian Development Bank, African Development Bank/Fund, Inter American Development Bank, Caribbean Development Bank, Arab Development Funds) and International Organizations likes FAO, UNDP, CGIAR, and IFAD. In 2008 World Bank contributed 33.4% of the total multilateral assistance, and the share of regional development banks was 5.5%. The bulk of the contributions 60% was from IFAD, FAO, OPEC, CIGAR and including others multilateral donors. As clearly shown in chart below, World Bank commitments and that of Regional Development Banks were pointing opposite directions from 1990 to 2000 except for the year of 1993 in which both Institutions reduced their commitments to Agriculture sector Multilateral Donors commitments for Selected periods 50,000 45,000 40,000 35,000 Million US$ 30,000 25,000 20,000 World Bank+ Regional Development Banks+ Opec Multilateral+ Cgiar Group/Fao/Undp+ IFAD 15,000 10,000 5, xi

12 Bilateral & multilateral Commitments 600, ,000 Million US$ 400, , ,000 Bilateral Multilateral 100, Concessional and non concessional Commitments Another perspective of looking to commitments is from softness viewpoint. In this regard commitments are categorized either as concessional or non concessional where the concessionality of the ODA is a measure as to what percentage of it is grant. If the assistance has a minimum grant element (GE) of 25% it is called concessional, otherwise it is nonconcessional. Therefore, it is a necessary condition for assistance to have a minimum GE of 25% to be categorically called an ODA, and the method of calculating the GE is given below. 1 1 ag r / a (1 + d) (1 + d) GE = 100 *(1 ) 1 d d( am ag) Where, am GE= Grant Element as a percentage of the face value of a loan r = annual interest rate a = number of payments per year d = discount rate per period, i.e., (1.1) 1/a 1 which gives a compound annual rate of 10 per cent G = grace period, i.e., interval to first repayment minus one payment period( M = maturity Please note that repayment is assumed to be in equal payments of principal Bilateral and multilateral donors provide both concessional and non concessional commitments. However, most of the bilateral commitments are concessional while a great proportion of multilateral commitments are non concessional. The non concessional part of xii

13 bilateral commitments is in the form of Other Official Flows (OOF) which carries a grant element of less than 25% but aimed for development. In general terms the concesstional part of the external assistance to agriculture is always more than the non concessional. Again, if commitments are assessed by type of donor and softness or concessionality, almost all bilateral commitments are concessional, while a great proportion of multilateral commitments are non concessional. Multilateral commitments are always higher than the bilateral ones when both concessional and non concessional commitments are considered. But, when only commitments with a grant element of 25% or more are considered or restrict aid within the ODA definition then the bilateral assistance is by far more than the multilateral. Concessional & Non concessional commitments 25,000 20,000 m illio n U S $ 15,000 10,000 Non Concessional Concessional 5, Grants & Loans Assistance from a donor can be totally grant or totally loan, but most of the financial aid is a mixture of both, that is partly loan and partly grant. This concept is very much related to that of concessional and non concessional or the softness of the loan. In this context, the perspective is different as we are looking the totality of the assistance rather than looking individual commitments as was the case in the concessional notion. When the total assistance is disaggregated this way; loan and grant the former outweighs the grant part. However, the trend reveals that the share of grant in total assistance was consistently increasing. At 70 s the share of grants to the total assistance averaged 15% xiii

14 compared to 32% and 31% at eighties and nineties respectively. Between 2001 and 2008 the share of grants to total assistance averaged the highest in as compared to other period. Bilateral donors contribute most of the grants, and the shares of grants from multilateral donors were shrinking since early eighties. In this view one could point out that the bilateral donors are more generous than the multilateral. Share of grants in Total Assistance for selected period 60.00% 50.00% 49% 40.00% 30.00% 32% 31% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% 15% Recipients In general terms a country may or may not qualify for certain assistance or lending according to the terms and conditions set by the bilateral and or the multilateral donors. But if the assistance has to be an ODA then the requirements include that the recipient country must be a developing country. And some developed countries like the countries in transition, and some more advanced countries (according to the DAC countries classification) qualify for the OA. More than two hundred countries are in the recipient list, and for that reason an attempt of regional outlook and selected economic groups will be overviewed rather than individual countries. Recipients receive different forms and types of assistance from different donors simultaneously at each point of time. And there are no quotas or ceilings as regards to yearly commitments. For this reason, there is no pattern or consistent trends over time. xiv

15 However, different donors give different priorities to the various sectors and sub sectors of the economy. The needs and pledges of developing countries vary very widely, and hence get different responds. In order to overview whether there are priorities for the donor countries in assisting developing countries in different economic levels, the magnitude of aid in different reveal when analyzed that there is no significant differences among the different groups. The economic groups to be reviewed include developing countries, least developing countries, and heavily indebted poor countries. Considering only the last ten years (1990 to 1999), continental Asia was getting the highest share of the EAA. There are many reasons which include over population; higher rate of people living under the poverty line. The assistance had no regular pattern, but intertwined upward and downward trends were observed for these periods. Continental Africa ranked the second to Asia. Africa possesses all attributes of developing countries and sometimes with more severe problems that include civil wars, between countries disputes, general health problems which all contribute to food security and development in the general context. Africa demonstrates low GNP per capita, above average population growth rates. Natural and man made disasters namely droughts, and floods slow down economic growth and negatively contribute to weaken the welfare of the population. Compared to early nineties, External Assistance to Agriculture for Africa from all sources declined. The share of Africa to the total development assistance reduced to 20% in 1998 from 35 % record high in Latin America and the Caribbean; the third recipient region with less population and less socioeconomic turbulence rank the third. At modest Latin America and the Caribbean get a fair share of agriculture ODA. Agriculture by purpose and activity Every project a donor undertakes for the purpose of developing agriculture and rural development of recipient country falls in one of the primary and or the secondary activities of agriculture where the former is popularly known as the broad definition of agriculture and the secondary activities are known as the narrow definition. The narrow definition includes the following purposes: Land and Water Research, Training and Extension Inputs Agricultural Services Crop production Livestock Fisheries Forestry Agriculture (others) xv

16 The broad definition of Agriculture adds to the above the following: Environment Protection Manufacturing of Inputs Agro Industries Rural Development/Infrastructure Regional and River development Commitments to agriculture by narrow definition always represented more than 50% of Total EAA. Their share over the total kept growing from 57% in 1974 to 77% in The narrow definition of EAA was on the rise during the 70s, slowed down in the 80s, and deeply declined in the 90s. The broad definition had the same trend as the narrow, but the pace of decline was much greater than the narrow. xvi

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